Introductory
WILDLIFE SPECIES: Grus canadensis | Sandhill Crane 



ABBREVIATION : 
GRCA

COMMON NAMES : 
   sandhill crane
   blue crane
   brown crane
   grey crane


TAXONOMY : 
The currently accepted scientific name for sandhill crane is Grus
canadensis Linnaeus.  There are seven subspecies:  three are migratory and
four are permanent residents of their range [15,19].

Grus canadensis ssp. pulla Aldrich - Mississippi sandhill crane
Grus c. ssp. nesiotes - Cuba sandhill crane
Grus c. ssp. pratensis Meyer - Florida sandhill crane
Grus c. ssp. pulla - Mississippi sandhill crane
Grus c. ssp. canadensis - lesser sandhill crane *
Grus c. ssp. rowani Aldrich - Canadian sandhill crane *
Grus c. ssp. tabida (Peters) - greater sandhill crane *

* migratory subspecies


ORDER : 
Gruiformes

CLASS : 
Bird

FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS : 
See OTHER STATUS

OTHER STATUS : 
Two subspecies of sandhill crane are federally listed as endangered:
the Cuba and Mississippi sandhill cranes [16].

Sandhill crane is listed as endangered in Illinois [20] and Washington
[22].  Florida sandhill crane is listed as threatened in Florida [21].


COMPILED BY AND DATE : 
S. A. Snyder, August 1992


LAST REVISED BY AND DATE : 
NO-ENTRY


AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION : 
Snyder, S. A. 1992. Grus canadensis. In: Remainder of Citation

WILDLIFE DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
WILDLIFE SPECIES: Grus canadensis | Sandhill Crane 



GENERAL DISTRIBUTION : 
Sandhill cranes migrate from the northern reaches of Canada's Northwest
Territories south to Mexico.  The distribution of each subspecies is
listed below [15]:

G. c. ssp. pulla - Jackson County, Mississippi
G. c. ssp. nesiotes - western Cuba and the Isle of Pines, Cuba
G. c. ssp. pratensis - Florida and southern Georgia
G. c. ssp. canadensis - nests in Alaska, Siberia, northern Canada;
                        winters in California, Texas, New Mexico,
                        and Mexico
G. c. ssp. rowani - nests in central and western Canada; winters in
                    Texas, Oklahoma, eatern New Mexico, and possibly
                    Mexico
G. c. ssp. tabida - nests in Manitoba, Ontario, Michigan, Wisconsin,
                    Minnesota, Montana, Wyoming, Idaho, Utah, Nevada,
                    Oregon, Colorado, northern California; winters in
                    Arizona, California, New Mexico, Mexico, Texas,
                    Florida


ECOSYSTEMS : 
FRES11 Spruce-fir
FRES12 Longleaf-slash pine
FRES13 Loblolly-shortleaf pine
FRES16 Oak-gum-cypress
FRES19 Aspen-birch
FRES23 Fir-spruce
FRES24 Hemlock-Sitka spruce
FRES28 Western hardwoods
FRES29 Sagebrush
FRES31 Shinnery
FRES32 Texas savanna
FRES36 Mountain grasslands
FRES37 Mountain meadows
FRES38 Plains grasslands
FRES39 Prairie
FRES40 Desert grasslands
FRES41 Wet grasslands
FRES42 Annual grasslands


STATES : 


    
AL
    
AK
	
AZ
    
CA
    
CO
    
FL
    
GA
    
ID
    
IN
    
KS


    
MI
    
MN
    
MT
    
NE
    
NV
    
NM
    
ND
    
OK
    
OR
    
SD


    
TX
    
UT
    
WA
    
WI
    
WY






    
AB
    
BC
    
MB
    
NT
    
ON
    
SK
    
YK






    
MEXICO
    




BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS : 
    1  Northern Pacific Border
    2  Cascade Mountains
    3  Southern Pacific Border
    4  Sierra Mountains
    5  Columbia Plateau
    6  Upper Basin and Range
    7  Lower Basin and Range
    8  Northern Rocky Mountains
    9  Middle Rocky Mountains
   10  Wyoming Basin
   11  Southern Rocky Mountains
   12  Colorado Plateau
   13  Rocky Mountain Piedmont
   14  Great Plains
   16  Upper Missouri Basin and Broken Lands


KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS : 
   K005  Mixed conifer forest
   K020  Spruce - fir - Douglas-fir forest
   K038  Great Basin sagebrush
   K048  California steppe
   K049  Tule marshes
   K051  Wheatgrass - bluegrass
   K056  Wheatgrass - needlegrass shrubsteppe
   K063  Foothills prairie
   K066  Wheatgrass - needlegrass
   K067  Wheatgrass - bluestem - needlegrass
   K069  Bluestem - grama prairie
   K071  Shinnery
   K074  Bluestem prairie
   K075  Nebraska Sandhills prairie
   K080  Marl - everglades
   K081  Oak savanna
   K083  Cedar glades
   K091  Cypress savanna
   K092  Everglades
   K093  Great Lakes spruce - fir forest
   K094  Conifer bog
   K096  Northeastern spruce - fir forest
   K105  Mangrove
   K113  Southern floodplain forest
   K116  Subtropical pine forest


SAF COVER TYPES : 
     1  Jack pine
     5  Balsam fir
    12  Black spruce
    13  Black spruce - tamarack
    16  Aspen
    38  Tamarack
    63  Cottonwood
    70  Longleaf pine
    71  Longleaf pine - scrub oak
    75  Shortleaf pine
    76  Shortleaf pine - oak
    80  Loblolly pine - shortleaf pine
    81  Loblolly pine
    83  Longleaf pine - slash pine
    84  Slash pine
    74  Cabbage palmetto
    87  Sweet gum - yellow-poplar
    92  Sweetgum - willow oak
   100  Pondcypress
   101  Baldcypress
   102  Baldcypress - tupelo
   103  Water tupelo - swamp tupelo
   104  Sweetbay - swamp tupelo - redbay
   107  White spruce
   111  South Florida slash pine


SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES : 
NO-ENTRY


PLANT COMMUNITIES : 
In the northern part of its range, sandhill cranes inhabit sedge (Carex
spp.) meadows with scattered spruce (Picea spp.), dwarf birch (Betula
pumila), and tamarack (Larix spp.).  Other wetland communities are
dominated by bulrush (Scirpus spp.), cattail (Typha spp.), rush (Juncus
spp.), sphagnum moss (Sphagnum spp.), and leatherleaf (Chamaedaphne
calyculata) [11,7].  In the South, plant communities are dominated by
water lily (Nymphaea odorata), pipewort (Eriocaulon compressum),
broomsedge (Andropogon virginicus), and hurrah bush (Lyonia lucida) [1].


REFERENCES : 
NO-ENTRY

BIOLOGICAL DATA AND HABITAT REQUIREMENTS
WILDLIFE SPECIES: Grus canadensis | Sandhill Crane 



TIMING OF MAJOR LIFE HISTORY EVENTS : 
Migration - to nesting grounds begins in late February to mid-March;
            arrive at nesting grounds in April through May; to wintering
            grounds begins in late August through mid-October; arrive at
            wintering grounds in mid September to November
Sexual Maturity - typically pair at age 5 to 6 years but can pair at age 3
                  years; mate for life
Eggs - one to three eggs laid 2 to 3 days apart; in Florida laid January
       through May; in northern U.S. and Canada laid April through May;
       in Alaska and northern Canada laid May through July
Incubation - 28 to 30 days
Fledge - 90 days
Life span - up to 24 years in captivity
[1,7,14,15]


PREFERRED HABITAT : 
The lesser sandhill crane breeds in lowland tundra areas, marshes, sedge
meadows, grassy slopes, moss muskegs, and the shores of rivers and
lakes.  The Canadian sandhill crane breeds in bulrush marshes and
muskegs.  The greater sandhill crane breeds in open mountain meadows,
coniferous forests, freshwater marshes, and sagebrush areas.  The Forida
sandhill crane inhabits wooded hammocks, marshes and ponds with thick
emergent plant species, cypress swamps, and wet meadow areas surrounded
by oak (Quercus spp.), southern pine (Pinus spp.), and cabbage palm
(Sabal palmetto).  The Mississippi sandhill crane prefers swamps and
prairielike savannahs with pine uplands.  The Cuban sandhill crane
inhabits arid lands scattered with shrubs and pine [7,15].  Sandhill
cranes fly from their roosting grounds to their feeding grounds at
sunrise and return to roost at sunset [7].


COVER REQUIREMENTS : 
Sandhill cranes need swampy, marshy wetlands for breeding and wintering
[15].  They need adequate emergent vegetation to build their 4 to 5 foot
diameter nests on mounds that rise above the water [11].  Sandhill
cranes depend on agricultural lands for the bulk of their food on
migration routes; therefore pastures and crop fields interspersed with
wetlands can provide ideal habitat [6,12].  In Florida, good sandhill
crane habitat consists of shrubby uplands surrounding permanent emergent
wetlands mixed with agricultural land [12].


FOOD HABITS : 
Sandhill cranes feed on a variety of plant species, eating roots,
tubers, seeds, grains, and berries during the summer.  During winter
they depend on stubble fields of wheat, corn, and sorghum [15].
Sandhill cranes also eat worms, snails, moths, snakes, lizards, frogs,
beetles, crickets, and crustaceans [13].


PREDATORS : 
Predators of sandhill crane include man, feral dogs, wolves, and coyotes
(Canidae), crows and ravens (Corvidae), hawks and eagles (Accipitridae),
jaegers (Stercorarius spp.), raccoon (Procyon lotor), alligator
(Alligator mississippiens), bobcat (Felis rufus), black bear (Ursus
americanus), river otter (Lutra canadensis), and snakes [1,7].


MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS : 
Sandhill crane pairs are used as foster parents to raise endangered
whooping crane young [11].  Sandhill cranes are susceptible to many
avian diseases including botulism, cholera, toxins (from moldy corn),
and tuberculosis.  They also are killed by hailstorms, by lightning, and
collisions with powerlines [18].


REFERENCES : 
NO-ENTRY

FIRE EFFECTS AND USE
WILDLIFE SPECIES: Grus canadensis | Sandhill Crane 



DIRECT FIRE EFFECTS ON ANIMALS : 
Sandhill crane nests can be destroyed by fire [17].


HABITAT RELATED FIRE EFFECTS : 
The absence of fires in southern Florida wetlands has promoted the
succession to pine forests.  With the increase in brush and litter, food
and suitable nesting cover for the sandhill crane in wetlands has
disappeared [8].

A June and August prescribed fire in a big sagebrush (Artemesia
tridentat ssp. vaseyana) stand near Jackson, Wyoming, led to an increase
in sandhill crane numbers on the burned sites [10].  Sandhill crane
numbers were greatest during the second postfire year on the June burn
and greastest during the first postfire year on the August burn.

Similar results occurred following several postdrought fires in the
Okefenokee Swamp from July through June of the following year [3].
Fires swept over 80 percent of the swamp, severely burning 140,000 acres
of upland pine stands.  There was no change in the resident sandhill
crane population, but there was a significant increase in the winter
population on the burned areas.  The fire seemed to cause an increase in
paintroot (Gyrotheca tinctoria), a valuable crane food.

Fires in peat bogs can sterilize the soil if allowed to burn too hot.
Cooler fires can create open water in areas where marsh vegetation
becomes too thick.  Fires can also prevent encroaching wooody
vegetation, therefore maintaining sedge meadows [17].  Fires can
increase worm activity by increasing soil temperatures.  Worms are an
important food for juvenile sandhill cranes [13].


FIRE USE : 
Marsh vegetation should be burned periodically to stimulate the growth
of food plants by reducing litter and competition from undesirable
species.  Fire can convert upland forests adjacent to marshes to grass
and sedge meadows [17].


REFERENCES : 
NO-ENTRY

REFERENCES
WILDLIFE SPECIES: Grus canadensis | Sandhill Crane 



REFERENCES : 

 .  Bennett, Alan J.; Bennett, Laurel A. 1990. Productivity of Florida
       sandhill cranes in the Okeefenokee Swamp, Georgia. Journal of Field
       Ornithology. 61(2): 224-231.  [18830]

 .  Bernard, Stephen R.; Brown, Kenneth F. 1977. Distribution of mammals,
       reptiles, and amphibians by BLM physiographic regions and A.W. Kuchler's
       associations for the eleven western states. Tech. Note 301. Denver, CO:
       U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. 169 p. 
       [434]

 .  Cypert, Eugene. 1961. The effects of fires in the Okefenokee Swamp in
       1954 and 1955. American Midland Naturalist. 66(2): 485-503.  [11018]

 .  Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and
       Canada. Washington, DC: Society of American Foresters. 148 p.  [905]

 .  Garrison, George A.; Bjugstad, Ardell J.; Duncan, Don A.; [and others].
       1977. Vegetation and environmental features of forest and range
       ecosystems. Agric. Handb. 475. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of
       Agriculture, Forest Service. 68 p.  [998]

 .  Iverson, George C.; Vohs, Paul A.; Tacha, Thomas C. 1987. Habitat use by
       mid-continent sandhill cranes during spring migration. Journal of
       Wildland Management. 51: 448-458.  [18834]

 .  Johnsgard, Paul A. 1981. The plovers, sandpipers, and snipes of the
       world. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska. 493 p.  [16617]

 .  Komarek, Roy. 1963. Fire and the changing wildlife habitat. In:
       Proceedings, 2nd annual Tall Timbers fire ecology conference; 1963 March
       14-15; Tallahassee, FL. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research Station:
       35-43.  [13532]

 .  Kuchler, A. W. 1964. Manual to accompany the map of potential vegetation
       of the conterminous United States. Special Publication No. 36. New York:
       American Geographical Society. 77 p.  [1384]

.  McGee, John Michael. 1976. Some effects of fire suppression and
       prescribed burning on birds and small mammals in sagebrush. Laramie, WY:
       University of Wyoming. 114 p. Dissertation.  [16998]

.  Melvin, Scott M.; Stephen, W. J. Douglas; Temple, Stanley A. 1990.
       Population estimates, nesting biology, and habitat preferences of
       Interlake, Manitoba sandhill cranes, Grus canadensis. Canadian
       Field-Naturalist. 104(3): 354-361.  [18829]

.  Nesbitt, Stephen A.; Williams, Kathleen S. 1990. Home range and habitat
       use of Florida sandhill cranes. Journal of Wildland Management. 54:
       92-96.  [18832]

.  Reinecke, Kenneth J.; Krapu, Gary L. 1986. Feeding ecology of sandhill
       cranes during spring migration in Nebraska. Journal of Wildland
       Management. 50: 71-79.  [18831]

.  Tacha, Thomas C.; Haley, Donald E.; Vohs, Paul A. 1989. Age of sexual
       maturity of sandhill cranes from mid-continental North America. Journal
       of Wildland Management. 53: 43-46.  [18833]

.  Terres, John K. 1980. The Audubon Society encyclopedia of North American
       birds. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. 1109 p.  [16195]

.  U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. 1994.
       Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants. 50 CFR 17.11 & 17.12.
       Washington, DC: [Publisher unknown]. 42 p.  [24413]

.  Vogl, Richard J. 1967. Controlled burning for wildlife in Wisconsin. In:
       Proceedings, 6th annual Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference; 1967 March
       6-7; Tallahassee, FL. No. 6. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research
       Station: 47-96.  [18726]

.  Windingstad, Ronald M. 1988. Nonhunting mortality in sandhill cranes.
       Journal of Wildland Management. 52: 260-263.  [18835]

.  Donohoe, Robert W. 1974. American hornbeam  Carpinus caroliniana Walt.
       In: Gill, John D.; Healy, William M., eds. Shrubs and vines for
       northeastern wildlife. Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-9. Upper Darby, PA: U.S.
       Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest
       Experiment Station: 86-88.  [13714]

.  Herkert, J. R., ed. 1992. Endangered and threatened species of Illinois:
       status and distribution. Volume 2--Animals. Springfield, IL: Illinois
       Endangered Species Protection Board. 142 p.  [23799]

.  Wood, Don A., compiler. 1994. Official lists of endangered & potentially
       endangered fauna and flora in Florida. Tallahassee, FL: Florida Game and
       Fresh Water Fish Commission. 22 p.  [24196]

.  Washington Department of Wildlife. 1994. Species of special concern in
       Washington - state and federal status. Olympia, WA: Washington
       Department of Wildlife. 41 p.  [25414]

Related categories for Wildlife Species: Grus canadensis | Sandhill Crane