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Wildlife, Animals, and Plants
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Introductory
WILDLIFE SPECIES: Alces alces | Moose
ABBREVIATION :
ALAL
COMMON NAMES :
moose
European elk
Shiras moose
Alaskan moose
TAXONOMY :
There are seven subspecies of moose worldwide, four of which are found
in North America. They are differentiated by size, color, palate shape,
and geographic distribution [34].
Alces alces ssp. gigas
A. alces ssp. shirasi
A. alces ssp. andersoni
A. alces ssp. americana
ORDER :
Artiodactyla
CLASS :
Mammal
FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS :
No special status
OTHER STATUS :
Moose numbers fluctuate periodically in any given location, sometimes
reaching critically low numbers and other times abundant. Populations
are influenced by weather, predators, food availability, and human
disturbance, particularly hunting pressure [6,14].
COMPILED BY AND DATE :
S. A. Snyder, May 1991
LAST REVISED BY AND DATE :
NO-ENTRY
AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION :
Snyder, S. A. 1991. Alces alces. In: Remainder of Citation
WILDLIFE DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
WILDLIFE SPECIES: Alces alces | Moose
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION :
The moose can be found throughout Scandanavia, northern Asia, and
northern North America. In North America, the subspecies gigas ranges
from northwestern British Columbia into western Yukon Territory and
throughout most of Alaska. Subspecies shirasi can be found in western
Wyoming, north and central Idaho, western Montana, southwestern Alberta,
southeastern British Columbia, and in isolated areas of Utah, Colorado,
and extreme northwestern Washington. Subspecies andersoni ranges from
northern Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan into western Ontario, west
to central British Columbia, and north to eastern Yukon Territory and
the Northwest Territories. Subspecies americana ranges from Maine and
Nova Scotia, west through Quebec and central Ontario, and from Hudson
Bay south to the Great Lakes [34].
ECOSYSTEMS :
FRES10 White-red-jack pine
FRES11 Spruce-fir
FRES19 Aspen-birch
FRES20 Douglas-fir
FRES21 Ponderosa pine
FRES22 Western white pine
FRES23 Fir-spruce
FRES25 Larch
FRES26 Lodgepole pine
FRES28 Western hardwoods
FRES37 Mountain meadows
STATES :
| AK |
CO |
ID |
ME |
MI |
MN |
MT |
| NH |
UT |
WA |
WI |
WY |
| AB |
BC |
MB |
NB |
NF |
NT |
NS |
ON |
| PE |
PQ |
SK |
YT |
|
|
|
|
|
|
BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS :
5 Columbia Plateau
8 Northern Rocky Mountains
9 Middle Rocky Mountains
10 Wyoming Basin
11 Southern Rocky Mountains
KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS :
K001 Spruce - cedar - hemlock forest
K002 Cedar - hemlock - Douglas-fir forest
K004 Fir - hemlock forest
K005 Mixed conifer forest
K008 Lodgepole pine - subalpine forest
K012 Douglas-fir forest
K013 Cedar - hemlock - pine forest
K014 Grand fir - Douglas-fir forest
K015 Western spruce - fir forest
K020 Spruce - fir - Douglas-fir forest
K093 Great Lakes spruce - fir forest
K094 Conifer bog
K095 Great Lakes pine forest
K096 Northeastern spruce - fir forest
SAF COVER TYPES :
1 Jack pine
5 Balsam fir
12 Black spruce
13 Black spruce - tamarack
15 Red pine
16 Aspen
17 Pin cherry
18 Paper birch
21 Eastern white pine
22 White pine - hemlock
23 Eastern hemlock
24 Hemlock - yellow birch
30 Red spruce - yellow birch
32 Red spruce
33 Red spruce - balsam fir
35 Paper birch - red spruce - balsam fir
37 Northern white cedar
38 Tamarack
107 White spruce
201 White spruce
202 White spruce - paper birch
203 Balsam poplar
204 Black spruce
205 Mountain hemlock
206 Engelmann spruce - subalpine fir
208 Whitebark pine
210 Interior Douglas-fir
212 Western larch
213 Grand fir
215 Western white pine
216 Blue spruce
217 Aspen
218 Lodgepole pine
219 Limber pine
221 Red alder
222 Black cottonwood - willow
223 Sitka spruce
224 Western hemlock
225 Western hemlock - Sitka spruce
226 Coastal true fir - hemlock
227 Western redcedar - western hemlock
228 Western redcedar
229 Pacific Douglas-fir
230 Douglas-fir - western hemlock
235 Cottonwood - willow
251 White spruce - aspen
252 Paper birch
254 Black spruce - paper birch
SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES :
NO-ENTRY
PLANT COMMUNITIES :
Moose are found throughout the boreal forests of North America. They
inhabit jack pine (Pinus banksiana)-balsam fir (Abies balsamea) forests
mixed with paper birch (Betula papyrifera) and quaking aspen (Populus
tremuloides). They also inhabit white spruce (Picea glauca)-black
spruce (P. mariana) forests mixed with birch (Betula spp.) and willow
(Salix spp.) [12,39]. In the West moose inhabit Douglas-fir
(Pseudotsuga menziesii)/ninebark (Physocarpus malvaceous) habitat types,
with snowberry (Symphoricarpus albus), redosier dogwood (Cornus sericea)
and willow. Moose are also found in grand fir (Abies grandis)-Pacific
yew (Taxus brevifolia) forests and subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa)-
Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii) types with aspen [22,36,37]. Moose
use riparian communities and herbacious bogs. Moose are capable of
altering the species composition of plant communities and the overall
character of communities through overbrowsing [8,17].
REFERENCES :
NO-ENTRY
BIOLOGICAL DATA AND HABITAT REQUIREMENTS
WILDLIFE SPECIES: Alces alces | Moose
TIMING OF MAJOR LIFE HISTORY EVENTS :
Mating - September through October
Gestation - 8 months
Calving Season - May through June; occasional twinning occurs if
females receive more than adequate nutrition
Lifespan - 20 or more years; average 16 years
Age of Maturity - capable of reproducing at 16 months; however,
females usually produce first calf at 2 to 3 years;
moose reach full maturity at 5 or 6 years, with
maximum fecundity of 10 to 11 years
Antlers - only males have antlers, which are shed between November and
January
Home Range - varies from 116 square miles (300 sq km) in Alaska to 8 to
15 square miles (20-40 sq km) in northeastern North America
[6,34,43].
PREFERRED HABITAT :
Moose habitat preferences vary with the season. In summer moose can be
found in open plant communities where forage is abundant, such as
riparian communities and cutover stands older than 15 years. Moose seem
to use bogs and other aquatic areas more frequently in summer and in
disproportion to their availability [5]. During winter moose prefer
forested areas and move into denser, conifer-dominated forests as the
winter progresses. In mountainous areas of the West, moose concentrate
at elevations below 3,500 feet (1,067 m) during winter. During summer
they move to higher elevations, usually above 5,000 feet (1,524 m)
[11,29,37]. Moose distribution in winter is limited by the availability
of woody food plants and by snow conditions, such as depth, density,
hardness, and duration [14,46].
COVER REQUIREMENTS :
Moose need a variety of habitats from dense coniferous forests to more
open aquatic and riparian communities with some cover. Moose seek dense
forests during mid to late winter as snows deepen and harden. Cover
becomes more essential than forage during winter [24,33,35,38].
Pierce and Peek [37] noted that, in winter, moose in the Clearwater
Drainage of Idaho use dense stands characterized by broken canopies and
dominated by subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa) and grand fir, with
Pacific yew as the dominant understory and preferred forage. Allen and
others [1] reported the quality of winter cover increases as the
proportion of conifers increases. Ideal winter range is composed of
conifers taller than 18 feet (6 m), with a canopy closure of 75 percent
or greater. Cover becomes critical during severe winters in areas where
snow depth exceeds 40 inches (100 cm) because at these depths moose are
impeded [1,43,46]. For calving, cows need dense cover bordering younger
stands which provide substantial food. Cow/calf movements are
restricted because calves cannot wade through deep snow.
FOOD HABITS :
Moose are generalist, ruminant herbivores. Their foods encompass
several hundred species worldwide, but moose usually eat about 25 to 30
species in any one locale [43]. Thoughout their range in North America,
moose most commonly browse on alder (Alnus spp.), cottonwood (Populus
spp.), willow, birch, aspen, and balsam fir. Following is a list of
other species frequently found in moose diets: serviceberry (Amelanchier
spp.), mountain ash (Sorbus spp.), bush honeysuckle (Diervilla
lonicera), dogwood, mountain maple (Acer spicatum), Rocky Mountain maple
(Acer glabrum), viburnum (Viburnum spp.), current (Ribes spp.),
ceanothus (Ceanothus spp.), huckleberry (Vaccinium spp.), cherry (Prunus
spp.), Pacific yew, and wild sarsaparilla (Aralia nudicaulis). Moose
also eat various species of mushrooms, sedges (Carex spp.), grasses,
such as bluegrass (Poa spp.) and brome (Bromus spp.), lichens (Peltigera
spp.), and forbs, such as fireweed (Epilobium spp.) and lupine (Lupinus
spp.) [1,13,16,28,34,36,38,40]. Some preferred aquatic species include
water horsetail (Equisetum fluviatile), burreed (Sparganium spp.), and
pondweed (Potomageton spp.) [47]. In Newfoundland Dodds [15] noted
competition between snowshoe hares (Leupus americanus) and moose for
browse.
PREDATORS :
Moose predators include humans, wolves (Canis lupus), grizzly bears (Ursus
arctos), and black bears (U. americanus) [27,34].
MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
In the past wildlife managers have assumed that clearcuts were
beneficial to moose because such cuts favor abundant browse production.
In general this is true; however, moose require at least some cover
during every season and usually will not venture into large, open areas
with no hiding cover. Stelfox and others [41] reported that moose used
clearcuts after 17 years only if adequate shelter was available in
interspersed stands nearby. Matchett [29] reported that moose select
cutover areas that are more vegetated than not; these are usually at
least 10 to 30 years old. He concluded that for the Yaak River Drainage
in western Montana, cutting units should be less than 49 acres (20 ha),
and cutting units over large areas should exhibit a diversity of
silvicultural methods. Three hundred and twenty feet (100 m) of timber
should be left between cutting units, and road closures should be
imposed. Costain [11] recommended maintaining timber in stream bottoms
with a minimum of 300 feet (91 m) between cutting units. In most cases
moose will not use clearcuts until adequate cover has been established,
usually in 15 years. Moose select for edges along islands of residual
timber within cuts, as opposed to edges of large cuts [30]. Pierce and
Peek [37] recommended maintaining grand fir old-growth with a yew
understory because of the importance of this type to wintering moose.
In western Canada hundreds of moose are killed each year by trains.
This factor may be holding moose populations below their potential [10].
REFERENCES :
NO-ENTRY
FIRE EFFECTS AND USE
WILDLIFE SPECIES: Alces alces | Moose
DIRECT FIRE EFFECTS ON ANIMALS :
Occasionally moose are trapped and killed by fire [20].
HABITAT RELATED FIRE EFFECTS :
An extensive review of the literature indicates that fire generally
enhances moose habitat by creating and maintaining seral communities,
and is considered beneficial to moose populations [14,49,50]. The
beneficial effects of fire on habitat were estimated to last less than
50 years, with moose density peaking 20 to 25 years following fire [50].
Much research has been conducted on fire-moose relationships in Alaska.
Bishop and Rausch [5] stated that fire-created seral communities have
been the major influence on increasing moose numbers. A study conducted
by Gasaway and DuBois [20] showed that moose were not displaced from
their summer home range when a portion of it was burned. Moose used
unburned vegetation both within and outside the burned area. The fire
burned in spring, allowing vegetation to resprout for use during the
summer. However, extremely large, hot, and fast-moving wildfires can
force moose to temporarily abandon their home ranges. MacCracken and
Viereck [49] reported that following a spring fire browse for moose was
abundant within 2 months. Aspen, birch, and willow sprouted from roots
and stumps, and this response was closely related to the prefire stand
age. Young (70-year-old) aspen-white spruce-black spruce stands produce
10 times more forage than older stands (130 to 180-year-old).
Krefting [46] discussed the importance of fire to the Isle Royale moose
population. He stated that fire is the primary agent responsible for
maintaining the secondary successional vegetation that moose prefer.
Hansen and others [48] reported that the moose population of Isle Royale
quadrupled in the decade following a 1936 fire that burned 26,000 acres
(10,526 ha). At this time there were no predators on the island.
Wolf and Zasada [45] reported that aspen provided the most browse 1 to 5
years after fire, while birch and willow provided the most browse 10 to
16 years after fire. Others reported similar findings and noted a
decrease in browse production after 20 years [31,44,45]. However, fires
do not always stimulate aspen-birch-willow communities [9]. Following
fire in the boreal forest there is usually a period of 5 to 20 years and
occasionally 60 to 70 years when moose foraging conditions are
favorable. Duration of browse growth and volume produced is variable,
however. In Alaska a single, well-timed reburn could increase browse by
reducing white spruce [40].
Five years after a 40-acre (16 ha) fire in the Gallatin National Forest,
Montana, aspen increased from a few hundred stems per acre to over
30,000 stems per acre (74,100/ha). Shrubs sprouted vigorously from
rootstocks, with willow producing a greater canopy and crown volume than
prefire conditions allowed [22].
Frequent fires can destroy most of the humus layer and reduce the
regeneration of quaking aspen. Fires at 2- to 3-year intervals during
the regeneration stage may entirely destroy the suckering capability of
aspen. In older aspen stands fire seldom harms root systems enough to
destroy suckering [7].
A study in Idaho showed that burning Rocky Mountain maple increased the
crude fiber content, resulting in decreased digestibility. Moisture and
crude protein in willow and serviceberry (Amelanchier alnifolia)
increased significantly during postfire year 1 but began to decrease by
postfire years 2 and 3 [2].
Bangs and Bailey [3] stated that hot fires in hot weather probably would
not produce much beneficial edge habitat. They also concluded that calf
recruitment could be low in springs following fires that reduce
vegetation on wintering grounds.
FIRE USE :
In willow-birch-aspen forest types, burning every 15 to 20 years will
increase forage production for moose and maintain a vegetation height of
about 9 feet (3 m), which is within foraging reach of moose [31].
Spring or early summer burning allows for some forage regrowth in the
same year. Late summer or fall burning in northern latitudes will delay
forage regrowth until the following spring, reducing winter food
[20,49]. Areas where forage species are killed by fire must be seeded,
which delays browse production by 3 to 5 years [45]. Fires can be used
to intersperse new and old growth cover, and increase the edge effect.
To create a mosaic of stand age classes, burning should be
discontinuous. This allows moose to remain in immediate areas during a
burn. Also a variety of plant communities should be burned to provide
immediate and long-term browse, as well as a diversity of forage species
[49]. Dense coniferous forests must always be maintained adjacent to
more open areas with high forage production. Openings should be no
larger than 40 to 50 acres (16-20 ha) in areas of dense cover and less
in more open habitats [14,22]. Pierce and Peek [37] concluded that
piling and burning is better than broadcast burning in selection-cut
grand fir-yew stands in order to maintain the essential yew browse
understory. However, caution must be taken when burning these areas
because of Pacific yew's sensitivity to fire. Fire can be used to
maintain aspen communities and keep out balsam fir and white spruce
where these types succeed aspen [46].
REFERENCES :
NO-ENTRY
REFERENCES
WILDLIFE SPECIES: Alces alces | Moose
REFERENCES :
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2. Asherin, Duane A. 1973. Prescribed burning effects on nutrition,
production and big game use of key northern Idaho browse species.
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[15190]
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