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Wildlife, Animals, and Plants
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Introductory
WILDLIFE SPECIES: Bison bison | Bison
ABBREVIATION :
BIBI
COMMON NAMES :
bison
American bison
plains bison
wood bison
prairie bison
woodland bison
mountain bison
TAXONOMY :
The currently accepted scientific name for the bison is Bison bison
Linnaeus. It is in the family Bovidae [34]. Bison taxonomy has been a
controversial issue for many years and classification to the subspecies
level remains a matter of debate [11,53]. However, most authorities
recognize two subspecies, the plains bison (Bison bison bison) and the
wood bison (B. bison athabascae Rhoads) [11,34,53].
ORDER :
Artiodactyla
CLASS :
Mammal
FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS :
Wood bison are listed as endangered.
OTHER STATUS :
In Canada, wood bison are federally listed as endangered in Alberta,
British Columbia, Northwest Territories, and Yukon Territory [98]. The
Nature Conservancy lists them as critically imperiled in British
Columbia [77]. They are also listed in the Red Data Book by the
International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
(IUCN) and are thereby recognized world-wide as endangered. Wood bison
are classified as an Appendix I animal in the Conservation on
International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna
(CITES), which provides regulated protection from international trade
[63]. Bison are protected in Idaho [59].
COMPILED BY AND DATE :
Julie L Tesky, February 1995
LAST REVISED BY AND DATE :
NO-ENTRY
AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION :
Tesky, Julie L. 1995. Bison bison. In: Remainder of Citation
WILDLIFE DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
WILDLIFE SPECIES: Bison bison | Bison
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION :
Historically, bison were widespread in North America from Alaska and
western California across the United States and into northern New Mexico
[11,53,66]. Today, bison occur in geographically isolated populations
in parks and preserves (See ADMINISTRATIVE UNITS), other public lands,
and on private ranches. The only large herds of bison in North America
are in Yellowstone National Park, Montana and Wyoming, Wood Buffalo
National Park, Alberta, and Mackenzie Bison Sanctuary and the Slave
River Lowlands, Northwest Territories [11,27,53]. Smaller herds occur
in Alaska; northeastern British Columbia; near Nahanni Butte, Northwest
Territories; northwestern Saskatchewan; Elk Island National Park,
Alberta; Grand Teton National Park, Wyoming; National Bison Range and
Crow Reservation, Montana; Wind Caves National Park, South Dakota;
Wichita Mountains Wildlife Refuge and the Tallgrass Prairie Preserve,
Oklahoma; Theodore Roosevelt National Park, North Dakota; Henry
Mountains, southern Utah; northeastern Colorado; Nebraska; and Kansas
[11,35,51,53,83,84,91,93,96].
ECOSYSTEMS :
FRES11 Spruce-fir
FRES19 Aspen-birch
FRES21 Ponderosa pine
FRES23 Fir-spruce
FRES26 Lodgepole pine
FRES29 Sagebrush
FRES35 Pinyon-juniper
FRES36 Mountain grasslands
FRES37 Mountain meadows
FRES38 Plains grasslands
FRES39 Prairie
FRES40 Desert grasslands
FRES44 Alpine
STATES :
| AK |
CO |
KS |
MT |
NE |
ND |
OK |
SD |
UT |
WY |
BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS :
8 Northern Rocky Mountains
9 Middle Rocky Mountains
12 Colorado Plateau
13 Rocky Mountain Piedmont
14 Great Plains
15 Black Hills Uplift
16 Upper Missouri Basin and Broken Lands
KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS :
K011 Western ponderosa forest
K016 Eastern ponderosa forest
K017 Black Hills pine forest
K018 Pine-Douglas-fir forest
K023 Juniper-pinyon woodland
K024 Juniper steppe woodland
K038 Great Basin sagebrush
K051 Wheatgrass-bluegrass
K052 Alpine meadows and barren
K055 Sagebrush steppe
K056 Wheatgrass-needlegrass shrubsteppe
K057 Galleta-three-awn shrubsteppe
K063 Foothills prairie
K064 Grama-needlegrass-wheatgrass
K065 Grama-buffalograss
K066 Wheatgrass-needlegrass
K067 Wheatgrass-bluestem-needlegrass
K068 Wheatgrass-grama-buffalograss
K069 Bluestem-grama prairie
K070 Sandsage-bluestem prairie
K074 Bluestem prairie
K075 Nebraska Sandhills prairie
K081 Oak savanna
K085 Mesquite-buffalograss
K098 Northern floodplain forest
SAF COVER TYPES :
12 Black spruce
13 Black spruce-tamarack
16 Aspen
204 Black spruce
217 Aspen
218 Lodgepole pine
220 Rocky Mountain juniper
235 Cottonwood-willow
237 Interior ponderosa pine
239 Pinyon-juniper
253 Black spruce-white spruce
254 Black spruce-paper birch
SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES :
101 Bluebunch wheatgrass
102 Idaho fescue
104 Antelope bitterbrush-bluebunch wheatgrass
105 Antelope bitterbrush-Idaho fescue
107 Western juniper/big sagebrush/bluebunch wheatgrass
110 Ponderosa pine-grassland
301 Bluebunch wheatgrass-blue grama
302 Bluebunch wheatgrass-Sandberg bluegrass
303 Bluebunch wheatgrass-western wheatgrass
304 Idaho fescue-bluebunch wheatgrass
305 Idaho fescue-Richardson needlegrass
306 Idaho fescue-slender wheatgrass
307 Idaho fescue-threadleaf sedge
309 Idaho fescue-western wheatgrass
310 Needle-and-thread-blue grama
311 Rough fescue-bluebunch wheatgrass
313 Tufted hairgrass-sedge
314 Big sagebrush-bluebunch wheatgrass
317 Bitterbrush-bluebunch wheatgrass
321 Black sagebrush-Idaho fescue
401 Basin big sagebrush
402 Mountain big sagebrush
403 Wyoming big sagebrush
409 Tall forb
410 Alpine rangeland
411 Aspen woodland
412 Juniper-pinyon woodland
422 Riparian
601 Bluestem prairie
602 Bluestem-prairie sandreed
603 Prairie sandreed-needlegrass
604 Bluestem-grama prairie
605 Sandsage prairie
606 Wheatgrass-bluestem-needlegrass
607 Wheatgrass-needlegrass
608 Wheatgrass-grama-needlegrass
609 Wheatgrass-grama
610 Wheatgrass
611 Blue grama-buffalograss
612 Sagebrush-grass
614 Crested wheatgrass
615 Wheatgrass-saltgrass-grama
704 Blue grama-western wheatgrass
708 Bluestem-dropseed
709 Bluestem-grama
710 Bluestem prairie
715 Grama-buffalograss
717 Little bluestem-Indiangrass-Texas wintergrass
718 Mesquite-grama
722 Sand sagebrush-mixed prairie
PLANT COMMUNITIES :
Before European settlement bison occurred primarily on the central
grasslands and northern parklands of North America, but habitats ranging
from semidesert to boreal forest were also used [53]. In Montana the
Lewis and Clark expedition observed vast numbers of bison in areas
floristically dominated by shortgrass species [11].
Today, bison occupy shortgrass and tallgrass prairies, boreal parklands,
montane meadows, desert grasslands, and shrub-grass habitats. In
Canada, coniferous forest and quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides)
parklands with interspersed meadows and prairies form the main habitat
for wood bison [11]. In the Northwest Territories, bison habitat along
the Slave River Lowlands is within the boreal forest region of Canada,
where white spruce (Picea glauca) forests separate vast open meadows
supporting sedge (Carex spp.) and grass communities [11]. On the Beaver
Hills near Edmonton, Alberta, Hudson and Frank [40] found that bison
foraged most often on grassy upland meadows dominated by Kentucky
bluegrass (Poa pratense) and smooth brome (Bromus inermis) and least in
forests dominated by balsam poplar (Populus balsamifera) and quaking
aspen [40].
Bison in Wind Caves National Park commonly occur on grasslands dominated
by little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), big bluestem (Andropogon
gerardii var. gerardii), Kentucky bluegrass, and western wheatgrass
(Pascopyrum smithii) [18].
In Yellowstone National Park, bison inhabit meadows with sedge and grass
interspersed with lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) forests [11]. In
southern Utah, bison occupy pinyon-juniper (Pinus spp.-Juniperus spp.)
habitat [29,72,91].
REFERENCES :
NO-ENTRY
BIOLOGICAL DATA AND HABITAT REQUIREMENTS
WILDLIFE SPECIES: Bison bison | Bison
TIMING OF MAJOR LIFE HISTORY EVENTS :
Breeding season - Female bison are seasonally polyestrous, with a cycle
of approximately 3 weeks' duration [2,11]. However, unseasonal estrus
and mating sometimes occur [2,11,51]. The breeding season for bison
generally occurs between July and October [2,11,52]. However, it varies
in length depending on herd location. The breeding season has been
observed to last from June 15 to September 30 at Hayden Valley,
Yellowstone National Park [51]; from mid-July to mid-August in other
areas of Yellowstone National Park [52]; and from June 1 to July 30 at
the Wichita Mountains Wildlife Refuge [35].
Age at sexual maturity - Sexual maturity most commonly occurs at 2 to 4
years of age. However, some females breed as yearlings [11,53]. In
Wood Buffalo National Park, a small proportion of the yearling bulls,
approximately one-third of the 2-year-olds, and virtually all bison 3
years of age and older were sexually mature [11]. Bulls attain sexual
maturity well in advance of becoming part of the active breeding
population [52]. In the Hayden Valley bison herd, Yellowstone National
Park, bulls 8 years old and older were the most active sexually [51].
Gestation and calving season - The gestation period for bison is 9 to
9.5 months [11,51,53]. In most regions, the calving season is generally
from mid-April to May with births concentrated from the end of April
through the first 2 weeks of May [53]. However, conception and,
therefore, parturition can occur at any time of year [11]. McHugh [51]
noted that a few calves were born from June through October in herds at
Yellowstone National Park, the Crow Reservation, Montana, the National
Bison Range, and Wind Caves National Park.
Number of young - Females generally give birth to one calf; twins are
rare [11,53]. Bison generally produce two calves every 3 years [11].
Development of young - Calves are able to stand and nurse within 30
minutes of birth. They may try to graze by 5 days of age and will drink
water after the first week. The cow nurses her calf for at least 7 to 8
months; most calves are weaned by the end of the first year [53].
Longevity - In the wild few bison survive more than 20 years, although
there are records of cows surviving at least 40 years [53]. In wild
populations, by the time a bison has reached age 15 it can be considered
old. In captivity, lifespan increases [11].
PREFERRED HABITAT :
The primary habitat requirements for bison are adequate forage, water,
and space [8]. Bison thrive in open grasslands, meadows, and parklands.
When available, bison use forested areas for shade and to escape
insects. These areas also furnish forage when open areas are covered by
"deep" snow [8]. However, bison can survive in open valleys covered
with several feet of snow [94]. During severe weather, forested areas
and some topographical features furnish cover [8]. Scattered thermal
sites (particularly warm ground with less snow than the surrounding
area) provide favorable sites for wintering bison in Yellowstone
National Park [94]. In northern Canada forested and shrub covered
areas are often used as daily and seasonal travel corridors [11].
Most bison are seasonally migratory; movements are both directional and
altitudinal in some regions [11,52,70]. During historical times, large
herds of bison commonly moved southward 200 miles (322 km) or more to
winter range [2]. Directional and altitudinal movements between summer
and winter ranges still occur annually at Wood Buffalo National Park and
Yellowstone National Park [2,11,52,94]. During November and May, bison
at Wood Buffalo National Park migrate from wooded hills to the Peace
River Valley, a distance of as much as 150 miles (241 km) [2]. Factors
that may influence seasonal migrations include tradition, supply and
accessibility of forage, open water, shelter, insect harassment, spring
weather conditions and temperatures, and fall snowstorms at higher
elevations [53,58].
In mountainous areas, altitudinal movements to lowland winter range in
fall and to higher summer range in spring are quite common. Snipe flies
(Symphoromyia spp.) may be responsible for some altitudinal movements by
Yellowstone National Park bison herds during the summer [52]. Large,
windswept prairies may also be chosen in summer for relief from
insects. Bison, particularly cows, show strong affinity to traditional
winter range [52,70]. Shaw and Carter [70] found that older females
appear to be more prone than younger ones to seek new winter range and
return to the new range in subsequent winters.
COVER REQUIREMENTS :
Bison thrive in open areas. When available, shrub or forest cover may
be used for shade, escape from insects, or shelter from severe weather [8].
FOOD HABITS :
Adult bison require approximately 30 pounds of forage every day [25].
Where grasses and sedges are available in the habitat, they are
selectively grazed by bison, and where they are sparse, browse may be
substituted [8,11,20,53,88].
Dietary shifts from grasses to sedges and back again within a habitat
type are usually associated with plant phenology [11]. In Yellowstone
National Park, sedges comprised the highest proportion of bison diets in
all seasons, while grasses were second in importance. Minor quantities
of forbs (6%) and browse (2%) were consumed, mainly in summer [52]. In
northeastern Colorado, sedges were important to bison only during
spring. Bison herds located at Wood Buffalo National Park and Elk
Island National Park were observed feeding on grasses in summer and
sedges in winter [11].
In the Slave River Lowlands, bison diets contained 29 different plant
species. Slough sedge (Carex atherodes) was the most abundant plant in
the diet, varying from 42 percent in winter to 77 percent in spring.
The second most common food was reedgrass (Calamagrostis spp.), which
varied from 15 percent of the diet in spring to 35 percent in winter.
Together, these two forages comprised more than 70 percent of the bison
diet at all seasons [64].
Diet and habitat selection of wood bison were studied in the Mackenzie
Bison Sanctuary between February 1986 and April 1988. Wood bison showed
pronounced seasonal changes in their diet. Sedges constituted 96.1 to
98.8 percent of the winter diet. During the summer, the diet became a
more diverse mix of sedge (Carex spp.), grasses (Poaceae), and willow
(Salix spp.). Reindeer lichen (Cladonia spp.) became a major dietary
component in fall. Summer browsing on willows increased when sedge
standing crops were reduced [45].
In some areas forbs are seasonally important to foraging bison [11,89].
In semidesert range in southwestern Colorado, forbs were common food
items during all seasons but never exceeded 17 percent in any one season
[89]. In Yellowstone National Park and in northern Canada, forbs
appeared to be important to bison only during summer; in northeastern
Colorado, forbs were important during fall and winter [11].
On the shortgrass plains in Colorado, where blue grama (Bouteloua
gracilis) is the dominant species, bison consumed 36 different plant
species. However, only 11 contributed significantly to the total. Blue
grama and buffalograss (Buchloe dactyloides) were the most abundant
plants in the habitat and also in the diet. Where available, western
wheatgrass was preferred over blue grama. Other commonly consumed
species were red threeawn (Aristida purpurea), sun sedge (Carex
heliophila), scarlet globemallow (Sphaeralcea coccinea), sand dropseed
(Sporobolus cryptandrus), needle-and-thread grass (Stipa comata),
fringed sagebrush (Artemisia frigida), buckwheat (Eriogonum spp.), and
sixweeks fescue (Vulpia octoflora) [61].
On semidesert range at Colorado National Monument, the most common plant
species in the bison diet during most seasons was fourwing saltbush
(Atriplex canescens), followed by needle-and-thread grass, which was
important during cooler months. Sand dropseed and galleta (Hilaria
jamesii) were prominent in the diet in warmer seasons. The only forbs
significantly utilized during all seasons except winter were mallows
(Sphaeralcea spp.). Prickly pear (Opuntia spp.) was among the ten top
forage species during all seasons except summer. Some of the most
common plants in the habitat, cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum), Utah juniper
(Juniperus osteosperma), and big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata), were
the least preferred forages [89].
PREDATORS :
The main predators of bison are gray wolf (Canis lupus), [10,11,38,65]
grizzly bear (Ursus arctos horribilis), and coyote (Canis latrans) [11].
On the Slave River Lowlands, bison were the most important of six major
prey types eaten by gray wolves and represented 88 percent of prey
weight during the period of snow cover (Nov. 8, 1976-April 15, 1977).
Gray wolf predation in 1976 and 1977 accounted for about 31 percent of
adult and subadult bison mortality and approximately 27 percent of calf
mortality [65]. Winter-killed bison may be important food sources to
grizzly bear in early spring after they emerge from their dens [11].
MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
Bison are attracted to grassland sites altered by black-tailed prairie
dog (Cynomys ludovicianus). Bison often feed selectively near the
perimeters of colonies. These areas are constantly clipped by
black-tailed prairie dog and, therefore, have more readily digestible
perennial grasses, with higher nitrogen concentration and greater
accessibility of green tissues, than vegetation from uncolonized areas.
Consequently, black-tailed prairie dog colonies may receive a
disproportionately high amount of bison use. Prolonged grazing pressure
on colonies may result in changes in plant composition [18,19,12,87].
On a mixed-grass prairie, selective use of black-tailed prairie dog
colonies by bison resulted in considerably more biomass removed than by
prairie dog activity alone. Additionally, selective use of plant
species (i.e., grasses) by bison may contribute to an increase in
forb:graminoid ratios [95].
The thick hair on the head and forequarters of bison is ideally suited
for dispersal of awned, barbed, or sticky seed-bearing structures. For
example, the seeds of buffalograss, cocklebur (Xanthium perforatum), and
St. Johnswort goatweed (Hypericum perforatum) readily adhere to bison
hair. The dissemination of the latter throughout the National Bison
Range is thought to have been accomplished by bison [51]. Bison also
aid in dispersal by ingesting seeds. Samples from four buffalo chips at
Wichita Mountains Wildlife Refuge contained 219 seeds that germinated.
Of these, 195 (89%) were monocots, mostly Japanese brome (Bromus
japonicus). Bison may accelerate seed dispersal to burned sites because
bison are attracted to recently burned areas [17].
Localized stands of timber may be considerably affected by bison horning
and thrashing during the rut and at other times. McHugh [51] estimated
that 51 percent of lodgepole pine in some areas of Yellowstone National
Park has been horned by bison. Such activity may inhibit succession of
grassland to forest [11].
Where bison trails or wallows (concave disturbances formed as bison paw
the ground and roll in the exposed soil) are cut into steep hillsides,
considerable water and wind erosion can occur. Hillside trails can
serve as drainage channels, effectively lowering the water table in
upland areas and causing a change in the vegetation. Where trails cut
near the top of steep, sandy hills, erosion and slippage may produce
barren areas. However, by creating trails through different habitats,
bison help provide access corridors for many species of mammals,
including humans [11].
Bison wallows can serve as water catchments on flat terrain. In
Oklahoma bison wallows have been observed to hold water for prolonged
periods during the spring rainy season. Such small ponds become
available to both vertebrates and invertebrates. These water-holding
wallows may also enhance growth of specific vegetation such as ruderal
species and species adapted to wet habitats [11,81]. On the Wichita
Mountains Wildlife Refuge, ruderal species such as Japanese brome and
false-pennyroyal (Hedeoma hispida) had highest cover values within bison
wallows. Other common taxa within the wallows were Torrey rush (Juncus
torreyi), purple ammania (Ammannia coccinea), lythrum (Lythrum spp.),
and taperleaf flatsedge (Cyperus acuminatus), all of which are species
adapted to wet habitats [17].
Diseases - Anthrax (an infectious disease caused by the bacteria
Bacillus anthracis) outbreaks cause sporadic mortality in northern bison
herds. In Wood Buffalo National Park, 50 percent of bison may be
infected by tuberculosis, a chronic infectious disease [53].
Tuberculosis in a herd of bison for more than 26 years did not appear to
interfere with herd productivity. However, the importance of
tuberculosis as a mortality factor is difficult to determine for large
bison herds [11]. Brucellosis is an infectious disease caused by the
bacteria Brucella abortus. Abortion caused by brucellosis has been
reported in bison. It is assumed that infected bison shed brucella
organisms, thereby contaminating feed and water. Dissemination of the
disease is enhanced due to the gregarious nature of bison [11]. The
role of brucellosis and its affect on reproductive activity in bison is
difficult to determine due to the lack of data on the incidence of
abortion in bison [11,52].
REFERENCES :
NO-ENTRY
FIRE EFFECTS AND USE
WILDLIFE SPECIES: Bison bison | Bison
DIRECT FIRE EFFECTS ON ANIMALS :
Fires commonly occur on bison ranges without causing appreciable bison
mortality [11]. In the past, when large herds of bison roamed the
prairies, some prairie fires killed hundreds of bison [11,13,57]. One
report in 1850 stated that as many as 300 bison were seen lying together
on the ground with their hair burned off by a prairie fire [11]. There
were only nine known direct bison mortalities due to the 1988 fires in
Yellowstone National Park [56].
HABITAT RELATED FIRE EFFECTS :
Fire is important in creating and maintaining bison habitat. Fire
regenerates grasslands and enhances production, availability, and
palatability of many bison forage species [9,11,67,68]. Fire frequency
has been estimated to occur once every 3 to 5 years on some prairies
[97]. During presettlement times bison habitats were to a large extent
created and maintained by lightning-caused fires or fires set by Native
Americans [44,47,49,50]. The results of intense grazing by large bison
herds on recently burned areas may have reduced fuel loads, making the
grazed areas less likely to burn and even allowing them to function as
firebreaks [49,75]. In contrast, unburned areas would have been little
grazed, thereby increasing fuel loads and the probability of burning.
The slaughter of bison in the late 1800's may have shortened fire return
intervals and increased fire severity during the early settlement
period. Steuter [75] suggested that integrating a regional fire
behavior model with estimates of presettlement bison patterns could
provide a valuable tool for natural area management in the northern
mixed-grass prairie.
Several studies have shown that bison prefer to forage on recently
burned areas [5,7,22,28,70,87]. In tallgrass prairie on the Konza
Prairie Research Natural Area, northeastern Kansas, 45 bison range over
an array of watersheds with different fire regimes [87]. The watersheds
are burned in April annually or at 2-, 4-, or 20-year intervals. In the
spring of 1988 and 1989, Vinton and others [87] studied bison grazing
and use patterns among these watersheds as influenced by fire regime.
Bison used some watersheds preferentially and the pattern of watershed
use changed seasonally. During the spring of both years (April-June
30), bison selected only watersheds that had been recently burned
(annually or biennially), and were observed up to three times more
frequently than expected on these watersheds. In 1988, preferential
grazing of recently burned watersheds persisted through the summer
months. During autumn and winter of both years, bison preferred the
annual and 20-year burn watersheds to watersheds that were burned every
2 or 4 years.
On the same study site as above, little bluestem was sampled to
determine how fire influences its use by bison and its responses to
grazing. Plants were marked at the beginning of the 1992 growing
season. Little bluestem was sampled in an annually burned watershed and
a watershed burned at 4-year intervals (referred to as "unburned") that
had been grazed by bison since 1987, and nearby annually burned and
4-year burn interval watershed that were ungrazed. The 4-year burn
interval watersheds had last burned 2 years before sampling. On
unburned prairie, bison grazed only 5 percent of the available little
bluestem, selecting it only 30 percent as frequently as big bluestem,
the codominant species. On burned prairie, grazing frequency of little
bluestem was more than 3 times as great as on unburned sites and equal
to that of big bluestem. The increased grazing frequency on little
bluestem in recently burned prairie is most likely the result of the
removal of its persistent standing dead tillers by burning. Burning did
not affect grazing on big bluestem, a plant lacking persistent standing
dead tillers. With longer intervals between fires, bison might display
even greater avoidance of little bluestem in favor of other grasses
[93].
A combination of fire and bison grazing may increase the standing crop
of rhizomatous grasses at the expense of bunchgrasses. Pfeiffer and
Steuter [96] conducted a study on Nebraska sandhills during the 1991 and
1992 growing seasons to determine the response of sandhills prairie
vegetation to spring and summer prescribed burns and subsequent bison
grazing. Approximately 1,235 acres (500 ha) were burned in early May,
and another 247 acres (100 ha) were burned in late July, 1991. During
the 1992 growing season, bison grazing on burned areas reduced
bunchgrass standing crop by 56 percent, while reducing rhizomatous grass
standing crop by only 18 percent. Forbs generally appeared unaffected
by bison grazing. The increased grazing pressure by bison lasted only
one season. Rhizomatous grasses of the Great Plains are better adapted
to large herbivore grazing than are bunchgrasses. Burning and grazing
would increase the amount of forage available since, in unburned
prairie, standing dead tillers deter use of bunchgrasses.
Several studies concerning bison response to prescribed fire have been
conducted at Wind Cave National Park [5,28,32]. Two prescribed fires in
pondersoa pine (Pinus ponderosa)-grassland habitat were conducted on
October 16, 1974 and May 9, 1975. The spring fire was conducted on a
site adjacent to the fall fire. Bison were noted in the area of the
burns during the course of burning. They utilized regrowth vegetation
on the burned areas throughout the summer of 1975 [32]. A prescribed
fire conducted on April 1, 1981, burned 110 acres (44.5 ha) of
mixed-grass prairie and 134 (54.4 ha) of forest land. Bison fed within
the burn in 1981 and 1982, moving in 1983 to an area burned by wildfire
[28].
On the Wichita Mountains Wildlife Refuge, Shaw and Carter [70] studied
seasonal range use by bison before and after spring prescribed fires on
a mixed-grass prairie interspersed with post oak (Quercus
stellata)-blackjack oak (Q. marilandica) woodlands. Bison increased use
of the burned portion of their summer range. They showed no apparent
response to prescribed burning of an area of new winter range, but they
delayed their spring departure to traditional summer range.
Some studies have shown that cow-calf herds graze burned areas more
often than bulls [5,18]. The first postfire years following a fall
prescribed fire in grassland habitat at Wind Cave National Park, bulls
were found less than cow-calf herds on burned sites. Both cow-calf
herds and bull groups tended to use the burn more in June of the first
postfire season than at any other time. However, only cow-calf herds
consistently grazed the burn during the rest of the summer [18].
Wallows enhance species diversity in bison habitat. In Wichita
Mountains National Wildlife Refuge, ruderal species (e.g., Japanese
brome and false pennyroyal) and mesic species (e.g., purple ammania,
pepperwort [Marsilea mucronata], and seacoast sumpweed) had higher cover
values within wallow than outside them. Wallows may be especially
abundant and heavily used on burned sites because bison are attracted to
graze in such areas [16]. Collins and Uno [16] examined the effects of
February, 1982, prescribed fire on wallow vegetation in Wichita
Mountains Wildlife Refuge. Vegetation samples taken during June and
early July, 1982, from the edge and interior of unburned wallows were
more similar to each other than were edge and interior samples from
burned wallows. Species diversity and richness were significantly lower
in burned than in unburned wallows. Winter annuals were more abundant
in unburned wallows, perhaps because they were burned during their
growing season. The authors suggested that spring fires may reduce
cover of winter annuals in wallows, but summer and fall fires could
increase their importance [16].
Sedge-grasslands, which are important winter habitat for bison, often
increase in area after fire removes surrounding shrubs or trees [9].
Fires in open black spruce (Picea mariana) forests and shrublands may
result in expansion of sedge-grasslands. In 1977, the Bear Creek
wildfire near Farewell, Alaska, moderately to severely burned a closed
spruce-hardwood forest and an open black spruce forest with an
understory of willow, shrubs, and sedges. The fire converted 100 square
miles (260 km sq.) of predominantly open black spruce forest to
sedge-grassland. Most of the bison in this area winter on sites with
extensive sedge cover. By postfire year 4 the sedge-grassland habitat
had more than doubled in area. Fire-related snowpack changes also may
have stimulated bison winter range expansion. Before the fire, the
disjunct and widely scattered sedge-grasslands were separated by
extensive open black spruce forest and shrublands. This habitat
generally has a greater snowpack than sedge-grasslands and, therefore,
is likely to discourage bison movements. After the 1977 fire,
sedge-grasslands showed less snow cover than adjacent unburned open
black spruce forests and shrublands [9].
FIRE USE :
Prescribed fire has been used to manage free-roaming bison herds
[6,18,46,70]. Strategic placement of burns should integrate knowledge
of bison foraging behavior and preferences, bison travel routes, and
distributions of mineral licks and water [6,18]. Using prescribed fire
to improve grasses and sedges may reduce the need for expensive
supplemental feeding of bison in some areas [68].
Prescribed fire is effective in mitigating bison impacts on black-tailed
prairie dog colonies. Bison use of a black-tailed prairie dog colony
was compared before and after a prescribed fire on adjacent, uncolonized
grassland at Wind Cave National Park, in 1979 and 1980. Cow-calf herds
increased their use (measured as hours of feeding time) of the burned
grassland by a factor of 12 and decreased their use of the colony by 30
to 63 percent following the burn. Bulls were less attracted to the
burned site than cow-calf herds. To decrease bison impacts on
black-tailed prairie dog colonies, burns should be located a
"considerable" distance from colonies [18].
REFERENCES :
NO-ENTRY
FIRE CASE STUDIES
SPECIES: Bison bison | Bison
CASE NAME :
Cone Burn Study, Wind Cave National Park
REFERENCE:
Bock, James H.; Bock Carl. E. [n.d.] [5]
SEASON/SEVERITY CLASSIFICATION :
fall/low-moderate
STUDY LOCATION :
The study was located on a small knob in the northwest corner of Wind
Cave National Park, Custer County, South Dakota.
PREFIRE HABITAT :
This study was located in a ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) forest and
pomderosa pine-grassland ecotone. The dominant species in the canopy
was ponderosa pine. Common understory species included sedges (Carex
spp.), big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii var. gerardii), little bluestem
(Schizachyrium scoparium), Sandberg bluegrass (Poa secunda), sideoats
grama (Bouteloua curtipendula), blue grama (B. gracilis), hairy grama
(B. hirsuta), needlegrass (Stipa spp.), wheatgrass, leadplant (Amorpha
canescens), pulsatilla (Pulsatilla patens), Louisiana sagewort
(Artemisia ludoviciana), beautiful shootingstar (Dodecatheon
pulchellum), and western snowberry (Symphoricarpos occidentalis).
SITE DESCRIPTION :
A detailed description of the site was not given.
FIRE DESCRIPTION :
Conditions for the prescribed fire (the "Cone Burn") were met at mid-day
October 17, 1979, when the wind was about 10 miles per hour (16 km/h),
temperature was 58 degrees Fahrenheit (14.4 deg C) and relative humidity
was 45 percent. The fire passed over a 156 acre (63 ha) area in about 4
hours. A few standing dead snags on the north and west faces of the
area were still burning at mid-morning the following day, when they were
extinguished by a rain shower. Fire varied from discontinuous,
low-severity (leaving some patches unburned) to crowning behavior.
Combustion of surface fuels was nearly complete, except in unburned
patches.
FIRE EFFECTS ON ANIMAL SPECIES AND HABITAT :
Effect on vegetation - Vegetation was measured 1 year before the fire
and for 2 years after (May-June of 1980 and 1981) the fire. Plants that
increased as a result of the fire included sedges, needlegrasses, and
beautiful shootingstar; bare ground also increased. Plants reduced by
the fire included bluegrasses (Poa spp.), little bluestem (1980 only),
ponderosa pine (both canopy and immature trees), and shrubs (1980 only).
The fire caused only a modest decline in overall similarity between
experimental and control vegetation plots, and this decline persisted
through two postfire growing seasons.
Effect on bison - Bison preferred feeding on burned sites during the
first postfire growing season. Before the fire, bison cow-calf herds
preferred the control areas. After burning, they were attracted to the
recently burned area for feeding. However, this grazing preference
disappeared in the second postfire year. Before the fire, bulls
preferred the control site. During the first postfire year the bulls
used both sites, while in the following year, they showed a preference
for the unburned site. Small bull groups tended to defer in habitat use
to cow-calf herds.
FIRE MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS :
This study showed that prescribed fires can be used in ponderosa
pine-grassland ecotones of the Black Hills to temporarily improve forage
for bison.
REFERENCES
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Index
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