|
Wildlife, Animals, and Plants
|
|
Introductory
SPECIES: Lythrum salicaria | Purple Loosestrife
ABBREVIATION :
LYTSAL
SYNONYMS :
NO-ENTRY
SCS PLANT CODE :
LASA2
COMMON NAMES :
purple loosestrife
loosestrife
TAXONOMY :
The currently accepted scientific name of purple loosestrife is Lythrum
salicaria L. [5,13,22]. There are no recognized subspecies or
varieties.
LIFE FORM :
Forb
FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS :
No special status
OTHER STATUS :
NO-ENTRY
COMPILED BY AND DATE :
Ronald Uchytil, September 1992
LAST REVISED BY AND DATE :
NO-ENTRY
AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION :
Uchytil, Ronald J. 1992. Lythrum salicaria. In: Remainder of Citation
DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
SPECIES: Lythrum salicaria | Purple Loosestrife
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION :
Purple loostrife is a weed that originated from Eurasia. It has
expanded its range in historic times and currently has a circumpolar
distribution in the Northern Hemisphere. It has also invaded temperate
and subtropical areas of Africa, Australia, and Tasmania. It was most
likely transported to North America as seed in ship ballast, and by the
early to mid 1800's, was well established along the Atlantic Coast. It
is currently present in all the southern Canadian provinces, and in all
the contiguous United States north of the 35th parallel. In the United
States, it is most common in the Northeast and Midwest, with sporadic
populations in the West [18,19].
ECOSYSTEMS :
FRES10 White - red - jack pine
FRES11 Spruce - fir
FRES15 Oak - hickory
FRES16 Oak - gum - cypress
FRES17 Elm - ash - cottonwood
FRES18 Maple - beech - birch
FRES20 Douglas-fir
FRES28 Western hardwoods
FRES29 Sagebrush
FRES38 Plains grasslands
FRES39 Prairie
FRES41 Wet grasslands
FRES42 Annual grasslands
STATES :
AL AR CA CO CT DE ID IL IN IA
KS KY ME MD MA MI MN MO MT NE
NV NH NJ NY NC ND OH OR PA RI
SD TN TX UT VT VA WA WV WI WY
AB BC MB NB NS ON PE PQ SK
ADMINISTRATIVE UNITS :
ACAD BITH BLRI CACO CUVA DEWA
FIIS GATE INDU OLYM RICH SARA
SLBE VAFO VOYA
BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS :
1 Northern Pacific Border
2 Cascade Mountains
3 Southern Pacific Border
4 Sierra Mountains
5 Columbia Plateau
6 Upper Basin and Range
8 Northern Rocky Mountains
9 Middle Rocky Mountains
12 Colorado Plateau
13 Rocky Mountain Piedmont
14 Great Plains
KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS :
K002 Cedar - hemlock - Douglas-fir forest
K040 Saltbush - greasewood
K048 California steppe
K049 Tule marshes
K055 Sagebrush steppe
K073 Northern cordgrass prairie
K074 Bluestem prairie
K075 Nebraska Sandhills prairie
K081 Oak savanna
K082 Mosaic of K074 and K100
K093 Great Lakes spruce - fir forest
K094 Conifer bog
K095 Great Lakes pine forest
K096 Northeastern spruce - fir forest
K098 Northern floodplain forest
K099 Maple - basswood forest
K100 Oak - hickory forest
K101 Elm - ash forest
K103 Mixed mesophytic forest
K104 Appalachian oak forest
K106 Northern hardwoods
K107 Northern hardwoods - fir forest
K108 Northern hardwoods - spruce forest
K109 Transition between K104 and K106
K112 Southern mixed forest
K113 Southern floodplain forest
SAF COVER TYPES :
1 Jack pine
5 Balsam fir
12 Black spruce
13 Black spruce - tamarack
25 Sugar maple - beech - yellow birch
27 Sugar maple
31 Red spruce - sugar maple - beech
32 Red spruce
33 Red spruce - balsam fir
35 Paper birch - red spruce - balsam fir
38 Tamarack
42 Bur oak
107 White spruce
108 Red maple
230 Douglas-fir - western hemlock
235 Cottonwood - willow
SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES :
NO-ENTRY
HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES :
NO-ENTRY
VALUE AND USE
SPECIES: Lythrum salicaria | Purple Loosestrife
WOOD PRODUCTS VALUE :
NO-ENTRY
IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE :
Purple loosestrife-dominated wetlands are generally considered poor
wildlife habitat. Muskrats seldom feed on purple loosestrife or build
houses with its stems [14]. It provides poor waterfowl nesting habitat
and is a seldom used by waterfowl for food [18].
White-tailed deer and livestock readily browse young, succulent stems,
but palatability decreases by early summer. The plant is much less
palatable to livestock than are the grasses and sedges (Carex spp.) it
displaces, and wetland pastures and wild hay meadows are seriously
degraded by its presence [8].
PALATABILITY :
NO-ENTRY
NUTRITIONAL VALUE :
NO-ENTRY
COVER VALUE :
Purple loosestrife drastically alters the character of wetlands by
totally replacing native communities. It generally destroys the
preferred nesting habitat of many waterfowl and other marsh-dwelling
birds. Long-billed marsh wrens will not nest in purple loosestrife and
may disappear from marshes in which it has replaced cattails (Typha
spp.) [14]. Platform-nesting waterfowl cannot use purple loosestrife's
stiff stems for nest construction [18]. Additionally, the closely
spaced clumps do not provide brood cover.
A few bird species, however, such as black-crowned night herons and
piedbilled grebes, occasionally nest in purple loosestrife. The
red-winged blackbird will probably benefit from an increase in purple
loosestrife. On the Montezuma National Wildlife Refuge in New York,
red-winged blackbird nests are more common in purple loosestrife than in
cattail [14]. These birds construct their nests in the dead stems of
the previous season.
Dense purple loosestrife stands may serve as escape cover and shelter
for pheasants and rabbits [17].
VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES :
NO-ENTRY
OTHER USES AND VALUES :
Purple loosestrife flowers are attractive to honey bees and are a good
source of pollen for honey production [19].
MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
Status: Purple loosestrife is a highly competitive weed that replaces
native wetland communities. It is classified as a noxious weed in many
states. Its spread has been hastened because nurseries have sold purple
loosestrife as landscaping plants and because its seeds occur in some
"wildflower" seed mixes. Idaho, Montana, Illinois, Ohio, Minnesota, and
Wisconsin have enacted legislation prohibiting the sale of purple
loosestrife and purple loosestrife hybrids [18,24].
Habitat vulnerability: The continuity and configuration of wetlands
strongly influence the expansion of local infestations because purple
loosestrife is primarily spread by floating seeds or propagules.
Isolated wetland basins are relatively safe from purple loosestrife
spread, whereas wetland complexes connected by a common waterway are
highly susceptible. Streams with steep gradients are less susceptible
than streams with low gradients because they have few backwater areas
for aquatic emergents to take hold. In general, the presence of
cattails, grasses, sedges, or rushes (Juncus spp.) identifies sites that
are most susceptible to invasion [18,19].
Control: Biological control programs are currently under study, but it
will probably be many years before they can be used successfully in the
field. Until then, mechanical and chemical control measures should be
used on a site specific basis. Where the number of plants is small,
they can be pulled. Plants should be pulled before flowering to prevent
scattering seed, and be removed from the site in bags because plant
fragments can take root and form new plants. Hand pulling is
ineffective on plants more than a few years old because the rootstock is
too large to be removed. Glyphosate can be sprayed on old plants or in
areas where hand pulling is impractical. Glyphosate treatments
generally result in greater than 90 percent kill and require follow-up
treatments for at least 3 years. Proper use of glyphosate for purple
loosestrife control has been outlined [11,18,23].
BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
SPECIES: Lythrum salicaria | Purple Loosestrife
GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS :
Purple loosestrife is a robust, erect, perennial herb with 30 to 50
stems arising from a common rootstock. Each stem is 4.9 to 6.6 feet
(1.5-2.0 m) tall. The large rootstock lies within the upper 12 inches
(30 cm) of soil; on well-established plants the rootstock may be up to
1.6 feet (0.5 m) in diameter. Purple loosestrife is easily identified
in the summer by the showy reddish-purple flowers that occur on terminal
spikelike panicles. Although the leaves gradually fall after autumn
frosts, the sturdy stems remain standing throughout the winter and into
the next growing season. After flowering each stem supports a dense
spiralling row of dark-brown seed capsules [8,18,19].
RAUNKIAER LIFE FORM :
Cryptophyte
REGENERATION PROCESSES :
Sexual reproduction: Purple loosestrife's reproductive capacity is
enormous. A single flowering stalk can produce 300,000 seeds, and
densities as high as 80,000 stalks per acre (197,600/ha) have been
recorded [7]. The seeds are very small, about 400 x 200 microns, and
weigh 0.5 to 0.6 milligrams [19]. They are primarily dispersed by
water, and become a component of marsh seed banks. Seeds are also
transported on the fur of aquatic mammals and in the plummage of water
birds. In a seed bank study in a Minnesota wetland infested with purple
loosestrife, 38,090 purple loosestrife seeds were found per square foot
(410,000/sq m) in the top 2 inches (5 cm) of soil [21]. Many of these
soil-stored seeds germinate on mud flats exposed during marsh drawdown
[14]. The seeds require relatively warm temperatures for germination.
Greater than 80 percent of the seeds germinate at temperatures between
68 and 86 degrees Fahrenheit (20-30 C) [16]. Autumn seed germination is
rare. Most seedling establishment is from seed germinating in late
spring or early summer. Spring-established seedlings grow rapidly and
produce flowers 8 to 10 weeks after germination [16].
Vegetative reproduction: The rootstock is the main organ of
perennation; therefore, wide vegetative spread is unlikely. However,
detached root or stem fragments can take root and develop into flowering
stems. Fragments produced by foraging wild animals or mechanical
clipping can contribute to rapid spread by floating to uninfested areas
[7]. Plants also send up new shoots from adventitious buds on the stem
or caudex when aboveground plant portions are injured or destroyed
such as by clipping, crushing, or fire [18].
SITE CHARACTERISTICS :
Purple loosestrife inhabits open wetland habitats such as marshes, bogs,
fens, sedge meadows, wet prairies, roadside ditches, river and canal
banks, and reservoir edges. It is shade intolerant and is infrequent
along well-shaded, tree-bordered riverbanks. It tolerates a wide range
of soil textures, from gravel to clay, and also grows on organic soils.
Purple loosestrife's most common associates, listed in order of
decreasing importance, include: cattail, reed canarygrass (Phalaris
arundinacea), sedge (Carex spp.), bulrush (Scirpus spp.), rush, willow
(Salix spp.), horsetail (Equisetum fluviatile), common reed (Phragmites
australis), flat sedge (Cyperus spp.), water-plantain (Alisma
plantago-aquatica), and stinging nettle (Urtica dioica) [19].
SUCCESSIONAL STATUS :
Facultative Seral Species
Purple loosestrife is an aggressive invader of wetlands. Once
established, it often displaces native wetland species such as cattails,
rushes, and sedges to form self-replacing monotypic stands. Where
purple loosestrife is competing with cattails, it is favored by
fluctuating water levels because marsh drawdown aids in seedling
establishment. However, where water levels remain constant and
relatively deep (16 inches [40 cm]) cattails may be able to outcompete
purple loosestrife [14].
Many purple loosestrife stands in the Northeast have maintained
themselves for more than 20 years [18].
SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT :
Purple loosestrife begins spring growth about a week to 10 days after
cattail and reed canarygrass, its most common associates. Throughout
the United States, flowering occurs from late June to early September.
The leaves are gradually shed after fall frosts; stems remain standing
throughout the winter [19].
FIRE ECOLOGY
SPECIES: Lythrum salicaria | Purple Loosestrife
FIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS :
Buds on purple loosestrife's caudex lie about 0.8 inch (2 cm) below the
soil surface and are fairly well insulated from the heat of fire.
Furthermore, the plant's fuels are concentrated on aboveground erect
stems, so there is little fuel at the soil surface to promote soil
heating. Although aboveground plant portions may be killed or consumed
by fire, belowground rootstocks survive on most plants and initiate new
top growth [19].
It is doubtful that marsh fires could destroy all of the purple
loosestrife seeds stored in the soil. Seedling establishment following
fire is probable.
POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY :
Caudex, growing points in soil
Ground residual colonizer (on-site, initial community)
Secondary colonizer - off-site seed
FIRE EFFECTS
SPECIES: Lythrum salicaria | Purple Loosestrife
IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT :
Purple loosestrife caudex mortality following fire is low. A prescribed
spring fire on the Montezuma National Wildlife Refuge in New York
resulted in less than 10 percent plant mortality [19].
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT :
NO-ENTRY
PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE :
Most purple loosestrife plants sprout from the caudex following
fire. Seedling establishment has also been observed following fire
[19].
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE :
NO-ENTRY
FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
Fire is an ineffective method of purple loosestrife control because few
plants are killed. Also, because purple loosestrife begins spring
growth after its common associates, spring burning in mixed stands may
favor purple loosestrife over native marsh emergents [19].
REFERENCES
SPECIES: Lythrum salicaria | Purple Loosestrife
REFERENCES :
1. Benedict, Jim. 1990. Purple loosestrife control in Voyageurs National
Park. Park Science: A Resource Management Bulletin. 10(3): 21-22.
[12720]
2. Bernard, Stephen R.; Brown, Kenneth F. 1977. Distribution of mammals,
reptiles, and amphibians by BLM physiographic regions and A.W. Kuchler's
associations for the eleven western states. Tech. Note 301. Denver, CO:
U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. 169 p.
[434]
3. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and
Canada. Washington, DC: Society of American Foresters. 148 p. [905]
4. Garrison, George A.; Bjugstad, Ardell J.; Duncan, Don A.; [and others].
1977. Vegetation and environmental features of forest and range
ecosystems. Agric. Handb. 475. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service. 68 p. [998]
5. Great Plains Flora Association. 1986. Flora of the Great Plains.
Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas. 1392 p. [1603]
6. Harper, Bonnie L. 1986. A Minnesota counterattack on purple loosestrife
(Lythrum salicaria). In: Clambey, Gary K.; Pemble, Richard H., eds. The
prairie: past, present and future: Proceedings, 9th North American
prairie conference; 1984 July 29 - August 1; Moorhead, MN. Fargo, ND:
Tri-College University Center for Environmental Studies: 262-264.
[3589]
7. Heidorn, Randy; Anderson, Brian. 1991. Vegetation management guideline:
purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria L.). Natural Areas Journal. 11(3):
172-173. [15019]
8. Hight, Stephen D.; Drea, John J., Jr. 1991. Prospects for a classical
biological contol project against purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria
L.). Natural Areas Journal. 11(3): 151-157. [15145]
9. Kuchler, A. W. 1964. Manual to accompany the map of potential vegetation
of the conterminous United States. Special Publication No. 36. New York:
American Geographical Society. 77 p. [1384]
10. Lyon, L. Jack; Stickney, Peter F. 1976. Early vegetal succession
following large northern Rocky Mountain wildfires. In: Proceedings, Tall
Timbers fire ecology conference and Intermountain Fire Research Council
fire and land management symposium; 1974 October 8-10; Missoula, MT. No.
14. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research Station: 355-373. [1496]
11. Malecki, Richard A.; Rawinski, Thomas J. 1985. New methods for
controlling purple loosestrife. New York Fish and Game Journal. 32(1):
9-19. [18331]
12. Raunkiaer, C. 1934. The life forms of plants and statistical plant
geography. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 632 p. [2843]
13. Radford, Albert E.; Ahles, Harry E.; Bell, C. Ritchie. 1968. Manual of
the vascular flora of the Carolinas. Chapel Hill, NC: The University of
North Carolina Press. 1183 p. [7606]
14. Rawinski, Thomas J.; Malecki, Richard A. 1984. Ecological relationships
among purple loosestrife, cattail and wildlife at the Montezuma National
Wildlife Refuge. New York Fish and Game Journal. 31(1): 81-87. [18330]
15. Rude, Kathleen. 1988. Beware of the purple plague (It's spreading!).
Ducks Unlimited. 52: 30-32. [18906]
16. Shamsi, S. R. A.; Whitehead, F. H. 1974. Comparative eco-physiology of
Epilobium hirsutum L. and Lythrum salicaria L. I. General biology,
distribution and germination. Journal of Ecology. 62( 79-): 272-290.
[18329]
17. Smith, Ralph H. 1964. Experimental control of purple loosestrife
(Lythrum salicaria). New York Fish and Game Journal. 11(1): 35-46.
[18332]
18. Thompson, Daniel Q. 1989. Control of purple loosestrife. Fish and
Wildlife Leaflet 13.4.11. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Interior,
Fish and Wildlife Service. 6 p. [18333]
19. Thompson, Daniel Q. 1987. Spread, impact, and control of purple
loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) in North American wetlands. Fish &
Wildlife Research 2. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Fish and Wildlive Service. 55 p. [18065]
20. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service. 1982.
National list of scientific plant names. Vol. 1. List of plant names.
SCS-TP-159. Washington, DC. 416 p. [11573]
21. Welling, Charles H.; Becker, Roger L. 1990. Seed bank dynamics of
Lythrum salicaria L.: implications for control of this species in North
America. Aquatic Botany. 38(2-3): 303-309. [17423]
22. Welsh, Stanley L.; Atwood, N. Duane; Goodrich, Sherel; Higgins, Larry
C., eds. 1987. A Utah flora. Great Basin Naturalist Memoir No. 9. Provo,
UT: Brigham Young University. 894 p. [2944]
23. Wilcox, Douglas A. 1989. Migration and control of purple loosestrife
(Lythrum salicaria L.) along highway cooridors. Environmental
Management. 13(3): 365-370. [18328]
24. Devlin, Sherry. 1992. A weed gone wild. The Missoulian, September 18;
Sec. C: 1 (col. 4). [19674]
Index
Related categories for Species: Lythrum salicaria
| Purple Loosestrife
|
 |
