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Wildlife, Animals, and Plants
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Introductory
SPECIES: Bouteloua curtipendula | Sideoats Grama
ABBREVIATION :
BOUCUR
SYNONYMS :
Chloris curtipendula
Dineba curtipendula
Eutriana curtipendula
Cynodon curtipendula
Andropogon curtipendulum
Melica curtipendula
Heterostegon curtipendulus
Atheropogon curtipendulus
SCS PLANT CODE :
BOCU
BOCUC
COMMON NAMES :
sideoats grama
banderilla
avenilla
banderita
tall grama
TAXONOMY :
The fully documented scientific species name is Bouteloua curtipendula
(Michx.) A. Gray. Recognized varieties and forms are as follows:
Bouteloua curtipendula var. caespitosa Gould and Kapadia
Bouteloua curtipendula var. curtipendula
Bouteloua curtipendula var. curtipendula is rhizomatous; B. curti[endula
var. caespitosa grows in clumps without rhizomes [6].
LIFE FORM :
Graminoid
FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS :
No special status
OTHER STATUS :
NO-ENTRY
COMPILED BY AND DATE :
D. Tirmenstein June 1987
LAST REVISED BY AND DATE :
NO-ENTRY
AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION :
Tirmenstein, D. A. 1987. Bouteloua curtipendula. In: Remainder of Citation
DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
SPECIES: Bouteloua curtipendula | Sideoats Grama
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION :
Sideoats grama is widely distributed throughout much of North America
from southern California to Maine [14]. It occurs across Canada
southward into Mexico. Sideoats grama is common throughout the Great
Plains, most of the eastern United States, and much of the Southwest
[6,34]. It is especially abundant in the central and southern mixed
prairie [37].
ECOSYSTEMS :
FRES21 Ponderosa pine
FRES34 Chaparral - mountain shrub
FRES35 Pinyon - juniper
FRES38 Plains grasslands
FRES39 Prairie
FRES40 Desert grasslands
STATES :
AL AZ AR CA CO CT DE FL GA HI
ID IL IN IA KS KY LA ME MD MA
MI MN MS MO MT NE NH NJ NM NY
NC ND OH OK PA RI SC SD TN TX
UT VT VA WV WI WY AB BC LB MB
NB NF NS ON PQ SK Mexico
ADMINISTRATIVE UNITS :
AMIS ARCH BADL BIBE BICA BUFF
CACH CANY CARE CACA CHCU CHIR
COLM CORO DETO FOBO GWCA GLCA
GUMO JECA LAME LAMR MEVE MOCA
NABR ORPI OZAR PEFO PIPE ROMO
SAGU SCBL THRO WACA WICA WUPA
ZION
BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS :
3 Southern Pacific Border
6 Upper Basin and Range
7 Lower Basin and Range
8 Northern Rocky Mountains
9 Middle Rocky Mountains
10 Wyoming Basin
11 Southern Rocky Mountain
12 Colorado Plateau
13 Rocky Mountain Piedmont
14 Great Plains
15 Black Hills Uplift
16 Upper Missouri Basin and Broken Lands
KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS :
K011 Western ponderosa forest
K016 Eastern ponderosa forest
K017 Black Hills pine forest
K018 Pine - Douglas-fir forest
K023 Juniper - pinyon woodland
K031 Oak - juniper woodlands
K037 Mountain mahogany - oak scrub
K054 Grama - tobosa prairie
K055 Sagebrush steppe
K056 Wheatgrass - needlegrass shrubsteppe
K058 Grama - tobosa shrubsteppe
K060 Mesquite savanna
K063 Foothills prairie
K064 Grama - needlegrass - wheatgrass
K065 Grama - buffalograss
K066 Wheatgrass - needlegrass
K067 Wheatgrass - bluestem - needlegrass
K068 Wheatgrass - grama - buffalograss
K069 Bluestem - grama prairie
K070 Sandsage - bluestem prairie
K074 Bluestem prairie
K075 Nebraska Sandhills prairie
K076 Blackland prairie
K081 Oak savanna
K098 Northern floodplain
SAF COVER TYPES :
210 Interior Douglas-fir
236 Bur oak
237 Interior ponderosa pine
239 Pinyon - juniper
240 Arizona cypress
242 Mesquite
SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES :
NO-ENTRY
HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES :
Sideoats grama is a climax indicator in a number of sagebrush,
grassland, pinyon-juniper, and ponderosa pine communities and habitat
types. It occurs with bluebunch wheatgrass (Pseudoroegneria spicata),
western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), little bluestem (Schizachyrium
scoparium), big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii var. gerardii), Idaho
fescue (Festuca idahoensis), prairie junegrass (Koeleria cristata), blue
grama (Bouteloua gracilis), black greasewood (Sarcobatus vermiculatus),
true mountain-mahogany (Cercocarpus montanus), ponderosa pine (Pinus
ponderosa), one-seed juniper (Juniperus monosperma), and Rocky Mountain
juniper (Juniperus scopulorum).
Classifications listing sideoats grama as an indicator or dominant in
plant associationa (pas)or habitat types (hts) are presented below.
Area Classification Authority
SD,WY: Black Hills NF forest & shrubland hts Hoffman & Alexander 1987
Region 2: CO,NE,KS, general veg. pas Johnston 1987
SD,WY
VALUE AND USE
SPECIES: Bouteloua curtipendula | Sideoats Grama
WOOD PRODUCTS VALUE :
NO-ENTRY
IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE :
Sideoats grama is a valuable forage for all classes of livestock and
wildlife. It is palatable and nutritious throughout most of the year.
When rains occur in the early spring, grama can provide green forage
when other foods are scarce and generally remains green late in the
season [34,37]. In some areas it is an important summer food when
cool-season grasses are dormant [39]. It generally provides highest
quality forage during the month of July [39]. Many species of birds
consume the seeds, and small mammals feed on the seedheads and foliage
[35].
PALATABILITY :
Sideoats grama is palatable for all classes of livestock and wildlife.
It is highly palatable throughout the summer and fall, and moderately
palatable into the winter [32,37]. Leaves are much more palatable than
stems; mature stems are usually not consumed [34,37]. Sideoats grama is
considered to be more digestible than big bluestem , sand bluestem
(Andropogon gerardii var. paucipilus), or switchgrass (Panicum spp.)
[39]. The palatability and degree of use shown by livestock and
wildlife species for sideoats grama in several western states is as
follows [8]:
CO MT ND WY
Cattle Good Good Good Good
Sheep Good Good Good Good
Horses Good Good Good Good
Pronghorn ---- ---- Poor ----
Mule deer ---- ---- Poor ----
White-tailed deer ---- ---- Poor ----
NUTRITIONAL VALUE :
Nutritional content of sideoats grama, expressed as percentage of dry
matter, is as follows [23]:
Aerial Part Aerial Part Aerial Part Aerial Part
Fresh, Fresh, Fresh, Fresh,
Immature Mid-bloom Full bloom Mature
Ash % 12.7 14.6 13.6 13.8
Crude Fiber % 28.4 28.9 30.8 31.4
Ether Extract % 2.0 1.9 1.7 1.7
N-free Extract % 45.3 46.2 46.8 48.4
Protein (Nx6.25)% 11.6 8.4 7.1 4.7
Cattle-Dig.Protein % 7.8 5.0 3.9 1.9
Horses-Dig.Protein % 7.4 4.7 3.6 1.5
Sheep-Dig. Protein % 7.8 4.8 3.6 1.4
Ca % 0.66 0.70 0.51 0.36
P % 0.18 0.12 0.10 0.08
K % ---- ---- ---- 0.35
Mg % ---- ---- ---- 0.12
______________________________________________________________________________
Aerial Part Aerial Part Aerial Part Aerial Part
Fresh, w/o Lower w/o Lower w/o Lower
Overripe Stems,Fresh Stems,Fresh Stems, Fresh,
Early Leaf Mid Bloom Dormant
Ash % 11.9 11.1 9.6 10.3
Crude Fiber % 34.4 30.3 32.7 32.8
Ether Extract % 1.6 1.8 1.7 1.4
N-free Extract % 49.1 51.0 50.4 51.8
Protein (Nx6.25) % 3.0 5.7 5.6 3.8
Cattle-Dig.Protein % 0.4 2.8 2.7 1.1
Horses-Dig.Protein % 0.1 2.4 2.3 0.7
Sheep-Dig. Protein % -0.1 2.3 2.2 0.5
Ca % 0.22 0.38 0.28 0.24
P % 0.07 0.12 0.12 0.07
K % ---- ---- ---- ----
Mg % ---- ---- ---- ----
COVER VALUE :
The degree to which sideoats grama provides environmental protection
during one or more seasons for wildlife species in North Dakota is as
follows [8]:
Pronghorn Poor
Mule deer Fair
White-tailed deer Poor
VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES :
Sideoats grama has been successfully seeded in a variety of disturbed
areas. Qualities such as drought tolerance and relatively high seed
germination make sideoats grama a good choice for seeding on many
light-textured soils and rocky sites [13]. Establishment was difficult
on some Arizona sites, but good results were obtained by drill seeding
following mid-July rains [30]. Recommended seeding dates by region are
as follows [35]:
Region Planting Date
northern Great Plains April 1 to May 15
western Great Plains April 1 to May 15
central Great Plains March 15 to May 15
southern Great Plains January to April
Trans-Pecos and the Southwest June 15 to July 15
Nine-week old seedlings transplanted onto a Sonoran Desert site averaged
21 percent survival after 32 months [5]. Seedling mortality may have
been related to dry soils in spring [5].
Numerous cultivars have been developed includin 'Pierre,' 'Haskell,'
'Vaughn,' 'Premier,' 'Niner,' 'Butte,' 'Coronado,' 'Trailway,' 'Tucson,'
and 'Uvalde,' [10,13,31,35,39]. 'Vaughn' and 'Niner' both originated in
the Southwest and have been used successfully to revegetate many
pinyon-juniper sites [13]. 'Niner,' developed in 1983, exhibits good
seedling establishment, and reportedly produces more than 50 percent
more seed than 'Vaughn' [13]. 'Coronado' has been used successfully in
parts of New Mexico, Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas, and 'Trailway' is
recommended for portions of central Nebraska and Kansas [35]. 'Tucson'
has been planted in New Mexico and Arizona, 'Uvalde' in south-central
Texas, and 'Butte' in Colorado, Nebraska, Kansas, and the Dakotas [35].
'Haskell' has been successfully seeded onto lignite overburden in Texas
[31]. However, it failed to establish on adjacent bermudagrass swards.
Sideoats grama helps prevent erosion and is rated as having high to
moderate potential for long-term revegetation projects [8]. It has only
low potential for short-term revegetation [8].
OTHER USES AND VALUES :
Sideoats grama is used in native-grass lawn mixtures [12].
MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
Although a 1st-year forage crop is sometimes produced in very good
years, 2 years are generally required for forage production [35].
Sideoats grama is often used for pasture (less commonly cut for hay) and
has been successfully used for seeding eroded or disturbed range sites
in the Great Plains and Southwest [35]. Research suggests that forage
production of sideoats grama is generally quite stable. In an eastern
Montana study, production averaged 0.98 t/ha over a 4-year period [39].
Digestibility was found to vary inversely with forage production [39].
Sideoats grama typically increases following tree removal in
pinyon-juniper woodlands of the Southwest [29]. Individual plants tend
to survive longer on ungrazed sites. Comparative survival rates in a
17-year study were as follows [4]:
% Survival
Years 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Grazed 34.6 19.2 9.0 0 - - - -
Ungrazed 26.8 10.7 7.1 5.4 - - 5.3 0
Wasser [35] suggests moderate grazing for sustained production and
deferred rotation on ranges in poor condition.
BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
SPECIES: Bouteloua curtipendula | Sideoats Grama
GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS :
Sideoats grama is a widepread, perennial, warm-season native midgrass
[32]. It most commonly occurs in tufts or in small bunches, forming
open patches [15,37].
Both rhizomatous and nonrhizomatous bunchgrass varieties (or forms
according to some authorities) occur [6,43]. Rhizomes are scaly and
from 2 to 5 inches (5-13 cm) in length [14,36]. Sideoats grama reseeds
readily when sufficient water is available [30,37].
Sideoats grama, sometimes called "tall grama," is the largest species of
grama and reaches from 0.66 to 3.3 feet (0.2-1.0 m) in height [32,37].
The slender culms are erect and smooth, with a purple tint at the nodes
[14,32]. Leaves or blades are mostly flat, although somewhat involute
at the tip, and have hairy margins [6,37]. The inflorescence is made up
of 20 to 60 spikes which hang on one side of the slender flower stalk
[34,37].
Sideoats grama is relatively drought resistant; roots are well adapted
to growth in dry conditions [37]. Sideoats grama typically has many
coarse, fibrous roots [34]. Roots can grow to 2 to 4 feet (0.6-1.2 m)
in length and can spread laterally 1 to 1.5 feet (0.3-0.5 m) in the top
2 to 4 inches (5-10 cm) of soil [37]. When the subsurface soil is wet,
sideoats grama rapidly extends its seminal root into the subsurface
level, thus reducing dependency on the changeable moisture levels of the
upper soil zone [30]. Sideoats often increases dramatically after
drought [33,37].
In a Nebraska study, sideoats grama was found to have an average of 170
to 423 roots per plant [38]. The same study revealed 0 percent root
mortality after 1 year, 64 percent after 2 years, and 84 percent after 3
years [38]. Other researchers have reported that individual plants on
ungrazed sites can live for up to 7 years, although most die within the
first few years [4].
RAUNKIAER LIFE FORM :
Hemicryptophyte
Geophyte
REGENERATION PROCESSES :
Sideoats grama reproduces by seed, rhizomes, and tillering or lateral
spread [32]. It produces a fair amount of low viability seed [34], but
it reseeds readily when adequate moisture is available [37].
A number of studies have focused on germination characteristics of
sideoats grama. When conditions are favorable, germination is rapid,
with 50 percent germination within 22 hours [30]. Evidence suggests
that many seeds germinate during important longer wet periods. If the
wet periods are too short, most seeds cannot germinate but do survive as
viable seed [10]. Even when a high percentage of seeds germinate,
seedlings may be insufficiently developed to survive a short drought
period [10]. Seedling vigor is reported to be good in comparison with
other native warm-season grasses [35].
Establishment appears to be more successful when rains occur later in
the summer [10]. Seedling establishment and survival can also be
influenced by grazing. In a southern Arizona study, establishment was
less successful on grazed ranges, but seedling survival was actually
somewhat higher on grazed sites [4]. Results were as follows [4]:
Annual Number of New Plants Survival of Seedlings
per meter square During 1st Growing Season-%
Grazed 3.9 46.6
Ungrazed 5.0 33.9
Both rhizomatous and nonrhizomatous or bunchgrass type varieties (or
forms) of sideoats grama occur. Rhizomatous sideoats grama produces
short 2 to 4 inches (5-10 cm), slender, scaly rhizomes that form thick
mats [14,16,37]. Rootstock spreading is the main form of reproduction
in rhizomatous sideoats grama [34].
SITE CHARACTERISTICS :
Sideoats grama is widely distributed across the plains, prairies, and
lower mountains of much of North America [14,15]. It grows abundantly
on lower elevation mesas and canyons, scablands, weedy meadows, open
woodland hillsides, and on steep rocky slopes [6,16,44]. Sideoats grama
is described as most abundant and important in the central and southern
mixed prairie [37].
Sideoats grama occurs on a variety of soils including sandy,
clay-textured soils with a relatively high pH, and rocky, alkaline soils
relatively high in available nitrate and low in available water [24].
It grows abundantly on the rough soil of breaks and on light soils [37].
Sideoats grama is drought tolerant and often becomes abundant following
prolonged dry periods [37].
Sideoats grama typically grows in tufts or small bunches intermixed with
other species [33]. It commonly occurs with species such as the
bluestems (Andropogon spp.), Idaho fescue, prairie junegrass, blue
grama, little bluestem, threadleaf sedge (Carex filifolia), western
wheatgrass, bluebunch wheatgrass, skunkbush sumac (Rhus trilobata),
black greasewood, Rocky Mountain juniper, and ponderosa pine. In some
areas sideoats grama grows in dense, nearly pure stands with substantial
litter accumulation [3].
Elevational ranges for sideoats grama are as follows [8]:
from: 3,500 to 7,500 feet (1,068-2,250 m) in CO
3,100 to 4,000 feet (946-1,220 m) in MT
4,900 to 6,200 feet (1,495-1,891 m) in UT
4,000 to 5,000 feet (1,220-1,525 m) in WY
SUCCESSIONAL STATUS :
Obligate Climax Species
Sideoats grama is a climax dominant or codominant across much of the
Great Plains [12]. Depending on the type and severity of disturbance,
it can also occur in some seral communities. Sideoats grama often
increases abundantly following drought [33,37].
SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT :
Sideoats grama begins annual growth in the early spring. Development is
generally rapid; plants reach 1.5 to 2 feet (0.5-0.6 m) in height by
summer [37]. Flower stalks first appear in late June or early July;
flowering continues into August or September [12,37]. Flowering dates
in selected states are as follows [8]:
Beginning of Flowering End of Flowering
CO July September
MT July August
ND July August
WY July September
Sideoats grama typically remains green late in the season [37].
FIRE ECOLOGY
SPECIES: Bouteloua curtipendula | Sideoats Grama
FIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS :
Sideoats grama increases, decreases, or remains unaffected by fire,
depending on growth form, climatic conditions, season of burn, and
severity of fire. Reestablishment occurs through seed and/or rhizomes.
Recovery time is variable, but 2 to 3 years may be required [41,43].
POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY :
Rhizomatous herb, rhizome in soil
Tussock graminoid
Initial-offsite colonizer (off-site, initial community)
FIRE EFFECTS
SPECIES: Bouteloua curtipendula | Sideoats Grama
IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT :
Fire generally kills the top growth of sideoats grama which is often
burned or charred to within 1/8 to 3/4 inch (3-19 mm) of the root crown.
The rhizomatous variety (or form) of sideoats grama (var. curtipendula)
is generally harmed by fire, particularly in dry years. In wet years
this form may be relatively unaffected by fire [41]. The bunchgrass
variety (var. caespitosa) reportedly thrives after fire [43]. Specific
comparisons of the effects of fire on these two varieties are, however,
lacking.
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT :
An Arizona study indicated that lethal temperatures of culm bases of
sensitive perennial grasses such as sideoats grama closely approximated
existing air temperatures at or near ground level during the hot dry
months of summer [19]. During cooler, moister periods the lethal
temperatures of culm bases were much higher [19]. During a 2-year
study, the lethal temperature for sideoats grama ranged from 138 to 164
degrees F (58.8 to 73.8 degrees C) [19].
PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE :
The response of sideoats grama to fire varies depending on growth form,
climatic conditions, season of burn, and composition of associated plant
community. According to Wright and Bailey [43], rhizomatous sideoats
grama is almost always reduced 40 to 50 percent by fire, and at least 2
to 3 years are required for complete recovery [41,43]. The bunchgrass
form is reported to grow vigorously after fire [43].
In general, response is most favorable in wet years and after spring
burns [43,45]. This species is reported to be fairly tolerant of fire
during dormant periods [35]. In short- and mixed-grass prairies,
sideoats grama is generally reduced by fire; in tallgrass prairies it is
often unaffected by fire [43]. In the central and southern Great
Plains, sideoats grama is described as intolerant of fire even in
relatively moist years [42].
The number of inflorescences increased following fire in Kansas but
remained constant after fire in Wisconsin [7]. Plants regenerate
through seed and/or rhizomes.
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE :
Burning during wet years appears to minimize damage to sideoats grama.
In the southern Great Plains, yields of rhizomatous sideoats grama were
reduced nearly 51 percent in dry years but only 12 percent in wet years
[43].
In some areas the timing of burn can significantly influence the
response of sideoats grama. Spring burning on northern mixed-prairie
sites is believed to favor warm-season species such as sideoats grama
[46]. Sideoats grama increased following early spring burns in eastern
Kansas [45] and in southern Nebraska [28]:
herbage yield (kg/ha)
Burn Mow Control
June 1980 152 82 49
Sept 1980 155 244 160
June 1981 191 123 16
Sept 1981 705 59 274
Spring burns in eastern Nebraska also favored sideoats grama as compared
with spring or summer mowing [18]:
Average % Canopy Cover
Spring Burn Spring Mow Summer Mow
June Evaluation trace trace trace
August Evaluation 2 1 1
However, Towne and Owensby [33] found a decrease in sideoats grama after
mid to late spring burns in the Flint Hills of Kansas, and spring
wildfires have reportedly reduced sideoats by as much as 9 to 50 percent
at some locations [41]. Sideoats grama increased regardless of the date
of burning in Wind Cave National Park, South Dakota [40]. Cover of
sideoats grama also increased in response to fire in the Black Hills of
South Dakota as noted below [2]:
% Cover
1979 1980 1981
(Preburn)
Burn 1.6 2.0 3.9
Unburned control 1.2 1.8 3.4
% Cover
1979 1980 1981
(Preburn)
1.8 2.3 5.0
Significant increases in sideoats grama have been noted following
drought periods on plots burned in the early to mid spring and winter
[33].
Nutrient levels of sideoats grama are known to fluctuate with fire
history. A Nebraska study indicated the following nutrient
concentrations [25]:
Nutrient Concentrations (% dry weight)
#Yrs. Burned 0 1 2 3 4
K (%) 0.58 0.56 0.57 0.58 0.59
Ca (%) 0.36 0.29 0.34 0.30 0.34
Mg (%) 0.13 0.13 0.14 0.14 0.15
P (%) 0.05 0.10 0.10 0.08 0.08
Total N (%) 0.50 0.54 0.52 0.50 0.55
Zn (ppm) 17.9 23.0 25.0 26.1 25.0
Cu (ppm) 1.3 1.3 1.2 1.10 1.3
Fe (ppm) 22.9 25.5 29.4 33.7 38.9
Mn (ppm) 18.6 19.2 21.0 19.5 19.2
FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
NO-ENTRY
References for species: Bouteloua curtipendula
1. Bernard, Stephen R.; Brown, Kenneth F. 1977. Distribution of mammals, reptiles, and amphibians by BLM physiographic regions and A.W. Kuchler's associations for the eleven western states. Tech. Note 301. Denver, CO: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. 169 p. [434]
2. Bock, Jane H.; Bock, Carl E. [n.d.]. Some effects of fire on vegetation and wildlife in ponderosa pine forests of the southern Black Hills. Final Report. Contracts CX-1200-9-B034, CX-1200-0-B018, CX-1200-1-B022; Grant No. RM-80-105 GR. Unpublished report on file with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Lab, Missoula, MT. 58 p. [479]
3. Bock, Jane H.; Bock, Carl E. 1986. Habitat relationships of some native perennial grasses in southeastern Arizona. Desert Plants. 8(1): 3-14. [478]
4. Canfield, R. H. 1957. Reproduction and life span of some perennial grasses of southern Arizona. Journal of Range Management. 10(5): 199-203. [3938]
5. Cox, Jerry R.; Madrigal, Reynaldo D.; Frasier, Gary W. 1987. Survival of perennial grass transplants in the Sonoran Desert of the Southwestern U.S.A. Arid Soil Research and Rehabilitation. 1: 77-87. [705]
6. Cronquist, Arthur; Holmgren, Arthur H.; Holmgren, Noel H.; [and others]. 1977. Intermountain flora: Vascular plants of the Intermountain West, U.S.A. Vol. 6. The Monocotyledons. New York: Columbia University Press. 584 p. [719]
7. Daubenmire, R. 1968. Soil moisture in relation to vegetation distribution in the mountains of northern Idaho. Ecology. 49(3): 431-438. [12942]
8. Dittberner, Phillip L.; Olson, Michael R. 1983. The plant information network (PIN) data base: Colorado, Montana, North Dakota, Utah, and Wyoming. FWS/OBS-83/86. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. 786 p. [806]
9. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Washington, DC: Society of American Foresters. 148 p. [905]
10. Frasier, G. W.; Cox, J. R.; Woolhiser, D. A. 1987. Wet-dry cycle effects on warm-season grass seedling establishment. Journal of Range Management. 40(1): 2-6. [964]
11. Garrison, George A.; Bjugstad, Ardell J.; Duncan, Don A.; [and others]. 1977. Vegetation and environmental features of forest and range ecosystems. Agric. Handb. 475. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 68 p. [998]
12. Great Plains Flora Association. 1986. Flora of the Great Plains. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas. 1392 p. [1603]
13. Hassell, Wendell G.; Oaks, Wendall R. 1987. Herbaceous plant materials for pinyon-juniper renovation projects. In: Everett, Richard L., comp. Proceedings--pinyon-juniper conference; 1986 January 13-16; Reno, NV. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-215. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station: 335-342. [1106]
14. Hitchcock, A. S. 1951. Manual of the grasses of the United States. Misc. Publ. No. 200. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Administration. 1051 p. [2nd edition revised by Agnes Chase in two volumes. New York: Dover Publications, Inc.]. [1165]
15. Hitchcock, C. Leo; Cronquist, Arthur. 1973. Flora of the Pacific Northwest. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press. 730 p. [1168]
16. Hitchcock, C. Leo; Cronquist, Arthur; Ownbey, Marion. 1969. Vascular plants of the Pacific Northwest. Part 1: Vascular cryptograms, gymnosperms, and monocotyledons. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press. 914 p. [1169]
17. Hoffman, George R.; Alexander, Robert R. 1987. Forest vegetation of the Black Hills National Forest of South Dakota and Wyoming: a habitat type classification. Res. Pap. RM-276. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 48 p. [1181]
18. Hover, Edward I.; Bragg, Thomas B. 1981. Effect of season of burning and mowing on an eastern Nebraska Stipa-Andropogon prairie. The American Midland Naturalist. 105(1): 13-18. [1199]
19. Jameson, Donald A. 1961. Heat and dessication resistance of tissue of important trees and grasses of the pinyon-juniper type. Botanical Gazette. 122: 174-179. [1246]
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[2237] Index
Related categories for Species: Bouteloua curtipendula
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