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Wildlife, Animals, and Plants |
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INTRODUCTORY
ABBREVIATION:CALRUB SYNONYMS:No entry SCS PLANT CODE:CARU COMMON NAMES:
pinegrass TAXONOMY:The currently accepted scientific name of pinegrass is Calamagrostis rubescens Buckl. (Poaceae) [69,71,76,82,154]. There are no recognized infrataxa. LIFE FORM:Graminoid FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS:No special status OTHER STATUS:No entry AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION:Matthews, Robin F. (2000, November). Calamagrostis rubescens. In: Remainder of Citation DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION:Pinegrass is found from Manitoba west through British Columbia and south through Washington, Idaho, Montana, Oregon, Wyoming, Utah, Colorado, and into California [69,70,71,82,153,154]. The Natural Resources Conservation Service provides a map of pinegrass' distribution in the United States (http://plants.usda.gov/plants/cgi_bin/topics.cgi). ECOSYSTEMS [52]:
FRES20 Douglas-fir STATES:
NUTRITIONAL VALUE:
In general, pinegrass is moderate quality forage, but its overall value declines throughout the growing season
[30,98]. It is rated moderate in crude protein value in the spring and early summer which then declines, and moderate
in crude fiber value in early summer. Crude fiber increases toward fall
[30,75,98]. The following crude protein (%) and digestible dry matter (%) values for elk were reported
in the beginning of July and the end of September on burned (postfire year 3) and unburned quaking aspen
sites [24]:
In other studies comparing nutritive values in similar situations, the increased flowering and seed production on the burned aspen sites had apparently caused the decrease in forage quality (decreases in percent IVDMD, crude protein, phosphorus, and calcium) [40]. Other authors have also found higher protein values and higher in-vitro digestible dry matter values for pinegrass growing under a forest canopy than in open or thinned areas [98,145]. Hedrick and others [68], however, found crude protein values higher in openings versus under heavy shade in grand-fir-mixed conifer forests in northeastern Oregon. Pinegrass has higher protein content than timothy (Phleum pratense) or orchard grass (Dactylis glomerata) (both of which are used to seed burned Douglas-fir sites) from late June to mid-September [94,134]. Johnston and Bezeau [75] have listed seasonal nutrient composition of pinegrass in Alberta as follows:
COVER VALUE:Because of its low stature, pinegrass provides some cover only to small mammals and birds [41]. VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES:Pinegrass frequently exhibits vigorous growth following disturbance [27,84,85,107,134,155]. Its rhizomes and dense network of fine roots form a thick sod, which holds up under trampling [28,147,149]. In addition, the thick sod provides control of surface soil erosion for watershed protection [30,147]. Pinegrass sod may also play a role in rehabilitation by excluding the establishment of more competitive species [30]. Pinegrass has been included in seed mixtures developed for restoration of disturbed western redcedar-western hemlock sites in Glacier National Park [92]. OTHER USES AND VALUES:No entry MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS:
Pinegrass abundance and productivity are best on open sites
[27,68,145]. In grand fir-mixed conifer types in Oregon, pinegrass production decreased from 260 pounds per acre (291 kg/ha) in unlogged open areas to 60 pounds per acre (67 kg/ha) under closed canopies. In logged areas, pinegrass produced 380 pounds per acre (425 kg/ha) on open sites and 70 pounds per acre (78 kg/ha) on shaded sites
[44,68]. Other authors have also reported increases in pinegrass following overstory removal of grand fir in central Idaho
[131]. Thinning of ponderosa pine increased pinegrass production by 47% in Oregon
[44]; pinegrass cover increased 40% in thinned ponderosa pine in eastern Washington where spacings were greater than 16.5 feet (5 m)
[30]. Thinning of lodgepole pine in eastern Oregon resulted in an average increase of 90% in
pinegrass [145]; canopy removal increased pinegrass abundance in subalpine forests in British Columbia
[97] and in Douglas-fir/pinegrass types in various locations [97,133]. However, on some drier sites overstory removal may cause a decrease in abundance. Pinegrass decreased following logging on low elevation, open Douglas-fir/fescue
(Festuca spp.) sites in the Similkameen Valley, British Columbia
[97], and in bluebunch wheatgrass phases of the Douglas-fir/pinegrass types in Montana
[113]. BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS:Pinegrass is a native, perennial, rhizomatous grass. Culms are hollow and can reach up to 44 inches (110 cm) in height, but more typically grow 11 to 20 inches (30-50 cm) tall [65,146,154]. Dense panicles are 3 to 6 inches (7-15 cm) long. Pinegrass may produce moderate-sized clumps rather than single stems and is referred to in the literature as a sod-former [30,147,149,154], particularly when the overstory is removed [135]. Rhizomes grow mostly in the top 2 inches (5 cm) of mineral soil [30,53,72]. Seed-producing plants usually grow in the open and are somewhat tufted and erect, differing in appearance from the stemless, drooping form that usually grows in shade [147]. RAUNKIAER [115] LIFE FORM:
Hemicryptophyte REGENERATION PROCESSES:Pinegrass reproduces primarily through the lateral extension of rhizomes [30,143,150]. Pinegrass rarely flowers except in open areas or after removal of the forest canopy [34,36,82,120,147,154]. Seedlings reach reproductive age in 1 to 2 years [72]. Seeds are wind-dispersed and apparently do not persist in the soil [30,72,134]. Seeds germinate best on mineral soil [134]; stratification or scarification are not required, which may indicate that pinegrass seeds can germinate in the fall when an adequate supply of moisture is available and other conditions are suitable [30]. SITE CHARACTERISTICS:
Pinegrass grows in open areas and under forest canopies from valley floors to subalpine zones. It tolerates mesic to dry sites and is found on all aspects
[30,42,70,71,82]. Pinegrass is often found growing in extensive stands [82].
Some elevational ranges have been reported in the following states and province; 8,052 to 9,058 feet
(2440-2745 m) in Utah
[154], 2,700 to 7,800 feet (818-2363 m) in Montana [113], and 1,980 to 6,105 feet
(600-1850 m) in the Similkameen Valley, British Columbia
[97]. SUCCESSIONAL STATUS:
Pinegrass is shade tolerant [34,98,149,154] and is persistent throughout all successional stages
[35,51,86,113]. In many situations, pinegrass can maintain moderate cover under moderate shade conditions, but with increased light will acquire new vigor and dominate the herb layer
[27,131]. Pinegrass generally produces seedlings only in natural forest openings or in openings created by disturbance
[,34,36,114,131,143]. Pinegrass is an aggressive competitor for soil moisture
[13,84,86] due to the fact that it undergoes rapid growth early in the season and has high soil water usage
[84,124]. It is also capable of photosynthesis at very low leaf water potentials
(-3.5 mP)
[13,124]. Pinegrass is resistant to disturbance and readily invades or resprouts on sites following logging or fire, often with an increase over
predisturbance canopy cover
[86,102,126,142]. SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT:
Pinegrass generally initiates growth in late April or early May and typically goes into dormancy by early August
[1,98]. In a study on the growth and development of pinegrass in interior British Columbia, new
stem initiation was completed by mid-May, and no new stem development occurred until fall. All measures of growth (leaf
number, stem height, stem weight, and leaf blade area) indicated a cessation of growth in July
[143]. Regrowth takes place in late August or early September, depending on site and timing of fall rains
[1,98]. Although flowering is infrequent [143,147,154], it generally takes place July and August
[71,110,144].
FIRE ECOLOGYFIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS:
Pinegrass sprouts from rhizomes following fire [27,74,139,150]. Rhizomes are buried in the top 2 inches (5 cm) of mineral soil [18,72], allowing pinegrass to survive fires that do not completely consume the duff layer [34,50,114,128,150]. Pinegrass is seldom, if ever, eliminated from a site even after severe wildfires
[141]. Throughout its range, repeated fires promote increased cover in
pinegrass and often result in its early postfire dominance [17,27,30,91,130,155].
Pinegrass seedlings establish on burned sites from off-site sources, and
pinegrass undergoes mass flowering in the years immediately following fire [34,72,114,142,151], allowing for rapid postfire colonization [72,74,150].
Other habitat types in which pinegrass is named as a dominant understory species have been placed in "Fire Groups" in certain regions. Descriptions of these "Fire Groups", and the importance of pinegrass within them, along with fire history information and fire management considerations are available by region in the literature: eastern Idaho and western Wyoming [17]; northern Idaho [128]; central Idaho [32]; Utah [18]; Montana (east of the Continental Divide) [50]; and western Montana [39,49]. Estimated fire return intervals for some ecosystems and communities in which pinegrass occurs follow:
**(mean) POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY [139]:
Rhizomatous herb, rhizome in soil FIRE EFFECTS
IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT:Pinegrass is usually top-killed by fire [95]. Fires that consume the duff layer may kill pinegrass rhizomes [18,96,114]. In the northern Rocky Mountains, pinegrass is seldom, if ever, eliminated from a site even after severe wildfire [141]. DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT:No entry PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE:Pinegrass sprouts from rhizomes and establishes from seed following fire. It may bloom profusely for the 1st 2 or 3 postfire years, allowing rapid colonization of burned areas. It can also invade burned areas from off-site sources. Pinegrass generally increases in response to fire, often exceeding preburn levels [20,27,32,72,74,128,138,139,142]. DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE:
Following the Pattee Canyon Wildfire in a Douglas-fir type near Missoula, Montana, pinegrass bloomed profusely in the
1st postfire summer. Subsequent seedling establishment was observed in the following 2 years, along with vegetative spread from rhizomes. Pinegrass responded rapidly to the July
wildfire. Even on severely burned sites it became the most abundant native species. Pinegrass cover increased from
0.6 to 8.5% on upland sites, and from 1.0 to 1.3% on ravine sites from postfire year 1 to postfire year 3 [33,34].
In these study areas, pinegrass produced more biomass, uniformly flowered, and produced seed on severely burned sites. Pinegrass also produced many new culms in burned areas, but few were produced in unburned areas [40]. Pinegrass followed a general trend (increase in frequency and/or cover) in the first 17 years following the Waterfalls Canyon Fire in Grand Teton National Park. The fire occurred in a subalpine fir-Engelmann spruce dominated area, with some lodgepole pine contributing to the overstory. Cover and frequency were temporarily reduced in postfire year 1 on moderately burned and severely burned sites, as compared to an adjacent stand that had burned 43 years earlier and an adjacent unburned stand. Pinegrass increased by continued sprouting and seedling establishment from abundant postfire seed production, with greater cover in burned stands compared to unburned stands during most of the successive 17-year period. Mean percent frequency and cover, respectively, for pinegrass during the course of the study follow (frequencies were not provided after postfire year 1) [10,43]:
FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS:
Fire suppression in the Pacific Northwest has caused a downward trend in range
condition where pinegrass has historically played an important role. The invasion of Douglas-fir and grand fir
into ponderosa pine communities has caused an overall increase in crown cover which in turn has caused a decrease in pinegrass production. The highest densities of pinegrass in the region are found in fire-maintained ponderosa pine stands [63]. FIRE CASE STUDIES
1st CASE STUDY:
CASE NAME:Vegetal development following prescribed burning of Douglas-fir in south-central Idaho REFERENCES:
Lyon, L. Jack. 1966 [87] SEASON/SEVERITY CLASSIFICATION:August/high STUDY LOCATION:The study took place in Neal Canyon, a small drainage off of Eagle Creek and the Big Wood River, located within the Sawtooth National Forest. The area is approximately 6 miles north of Ketchum, Idaho (NE1/4, Sec.13, T3N, R17E, Boise Meridian). PREFIRE VEGETATIVE COMMUNITY:
Preburn frequencies based on occurrence in 25 2-by-2-foot (60 cm × 60 cm)
quadrats located in the study area follow ("present" indicates species was present in the stand but not detected in
quadrats): Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), 20%; subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa), present;
Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii), present; lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta), present; limber pine (Pinus flexilis), present; quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides), present; Rocky Mountain maple (Acer glabrum), 12%; bristly black currant (Ribes lacustre), 20%; (Ribes viscosissimum), 4%; (Penstemon fruticosus), 8%; mountain snowberry (Symphoricarpos oreophilus), 12%;
pinegrass, 24%; bluebunch wheatgrass (Pseudoroegneria spicata), 8%; (Poa nervosa), 20%; elk sedge (Carex geyeri), 52%; (Trisetum spicatum), 12%; heartleaf arnica (Arnica cordifolia), 48%; showy aster (Aster conspicuus), 8%; (Castilleja miniata), 8%; bull thistle (Cirsium vulgare), 12%; (Collinsia parviflora), 8%; fireweed (Epilobium angustifolium), 20%;
giant frasera (Frasera speciosa), 16%; cinquefoil (Potentilla spp.), 20%; (Pyrola secunda), 12%; (Senecio cymbalarioides), 44%; (Viola adunca), 12%. TARGET SPECIES PHENOLOGICAL STATE:Although not stated, pinegrass would have been entering summer dormancy at the time the study site was burned. SITE DESCRIPTION:The 120-acre (48-ha) study area was located at elevations of 6,500 to 7,000 feet (1970-2120 m) and general aspect was north-northeast. Annual rainfall at the time of the study at 2 nearby weather stations was 14 to 17 inches (355-432 mm). Total snowfall was 85 to 120 inches (2160-3050 mm). Soils in Neal Canyon are of limestone origin, rocky, poorly developed, and highly stable. Analysis at the site showed at least 50% gravel with a shift from sandy loams on the surface to a sandy clay loam below 14 inches (35.6 cm). Since some parts of the area had been heavily disturbed during previous years of logging, a specific 20-acre (8 ha) site of "less disturbed" terrain on a lower, middle slope was selected for examination. True aspect at this location was N 10-20 degrees. Slope was 64% and elevation was 6,500 feet (1970 m). FIRE DESCRIPTION:Basic objectives of the burn were sanitation and site preparation of the area for silvicultural purposes. Moisture content of fuel moisture sticks examined each day in the week preceding the burn had been a relatively constant 5 to 6%. During the firing period, temperatures rose from the mid-50 degrees Fahrenheit to nearly 80 degrees Fahrenheit (12.8-26.6 oC). Relative humidity dropped from approximately 50 to 10% or less. Surface winds were mostly under 5 miles per hour, with fire-induced gusts to 30 miles per hour. The fire was started with a flame thrower through the middle of the site and on the lower edge. Fire swept through tree crowns almost immediately. Within the site all litter and herbaceous material, all dead material less than 3 inches (7.6 cm), and all live stems less than 2 inches (5.1 cm) at the base were completely consumed. Fire intensity was measured with water can integrating devices described by Beaufait [12], resulting in a mean heat energy flux at the surface of the cans of 200 calories/second for about 45 minutes. It was inferred by the author that the water loss was comparable to losses during a severe broadcast burn in deep, dry slash. FIRE EFFECTS ON TARGET SPECIES:
The fire consumed all aboveground portions of pinegrass. Mean frequency (%) of pinegrass in the
prefire and postfire communities, as well as in an adjacent stand that burned 30 years earlier, follow ("x" represents present in stand but not detected in
quadrats):
FIRE MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS:As the findings of the study indicate, pinegrass appeared early in the postfire stand at frequencies only slightly different than the preburn community. Lyon's notes suggested an aggregate rather than random distribution pattern of pinegrass individuals. He predicted no major expansion of pinegrass, except for an increase in cover in the years to follow. 2nd CASE STUDY:
CASE NAME:Vegetation response to spring and fall burning for wildlife habitat improvement, west-central Montana REFERENCE:Noste, N. V. 1982 [107] SEASON/SEVERITY CLASSIFICATION:
spring (April)/low STUDY LOCATION:The two study sites were located in the O'Keefe Creek area, approximately 10 miles (16 km) north of Missoula, Montana, within the Lolo National Forest. PREFIRE VEGETATIVE COMMUNITY:
The prefire vegetation in the study area consisted of a senescent seral shrub community within a
Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii)/ninebark (Physocarpus malvaceus) habitat type. Wildfire had burned the O'Keefe Creek area 34 years earlier.
TARGET SPECIES PHENOLOGICAL STATE:Although not specifically stated, pinegrass would have probably initiated spring growth prior to the April burn, and would have been undergoing regrowth after fall rains during the October burn. SITE DESCRIPTION:The fall burn was conducted within a 50-acre (20-ha) area; the spring burn comprised 125 acres (50 ha). Aspect within the 2 burned areas was generally southeast; elevations were below 4,950 feet (1500 m). Slope averaged 30% with a maximum of 50%. No additional information was given on moisture regime or soils in the area. FIRE DESCRIPTION:
The study was initiated to compare spring and fall prescribed fire treatments to improve wildlife habitat in a deteriorated seral shrub community. Although there was a higher fuel loading on the fall than on the spring burn sites, loadings on both sites were low. The amount of fine fuels on both sites
was marginal for carrying the fires. Weather conditions during the fires follow:
Rate of spread ranged from 660 to 1,188 feet per hour (200-360 m/hr) on the spring burn, contrasted with 3,366 to 4,620 feet per hour (1020-1400 m/hr) spread rates on the fall burn. Flame lengths were correspondingly higher on the fall burn. FIRE EFFECTS ON TARGET SPECIES:
Volumes of pinegrass in the pre- and postfire communities, given as ft³/acre, follow:
FIRE MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS:Pinegrass recovered rapidly and showed a dramatic increase in volume over preburn levels following both the fall and spring burns. Calamagrostis rubescens: References1. Agriculture Canada. 1979. Research Station: Kamloops, British Columbia. In: Research Branch Report 1976-1978. Kamloops, BC: Agriculture Canada, Research Branch: 325-323. [4890] 2. Alexander, Robert R. 1986. Classification of the forest vegetation of Wyoming. Res. Note RM-466. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 10 p. [304] 3. Alexander, Robert R.; Hoffman, George R.; Wirsing, John M. 1986. Forest vegetation of the Medicine Bow National Forest in southeastern Wyoming: a habitat type classification. Res. Pap. RM-271. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 39 p. [307] 4. Armour, Charles D.; Neuenschwander, Leon F. [n.d.]. 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