Introductory
SPECIES: Carex aquatilis | Water Sedge 



ABBREVIATION : 
CARAQU

SYNONYMS : 
   Carex variabilis Bailey
   Carex substricta (Kukenth) Mack.
   Carex stans Drej.
   Carex interimus Maguire


SCS PLANT CODE : 
   CAAQ
   CAAQA4
   CAAQA5
   CAAQA
   CAAQD
   CAAQS


COMMON NAMES : 
   water sedge


TAXONOMY : 
The currently accepted scientific name for water sedge is Carex
aquatilis Wahl (Cyperceae).  The genus Carex is well known for its
taxonomic diversity.  Water sedge is the most widely distributed and
possibly the most variable in its section, Acutae.  Recognized
subspecies, varieties, and forms are as follows [31]:

        Carex aquatilis var. altior (Rydb.) Fern
        Carex aquatilis var aquatilis
        Carex aquatilis var. dives (Holm)
        Carex aquatilis var. stans (Drej.) Boott
        Carex aquatilis var. substricta Kukenth
                


LIFE FORM : 
Graminoid

FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS : 
No special status

OTHER STATUS : 
NO-ENTRY


COMPILED BY AND DATE : 
Amy B. Cope, July 1992


LAST REVISED BY AND DATE : 
NO-ENTRY


AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION : 
Cope, Amy B. 1992. Carex aquatilis. In: Remainder of Citation

DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
SPECIES: Carex aquatilis | Water Sedge 



GENERAL DISTRIBUTION : 
Water sedge is circumboreal.  In North America it occurs from
Alaska east to Newfoundland and south to New Jersery, Illinois, Kansas, New Mexico, and California[17,31,
34,54,58,64].


ECOSYSTEMS : 
   FRES18  Maple - beech - birch
   FRES19  Aspen - birch
   FRES20  Douglas-fir
   FRES21  Ponderosa pine
   FRES23  Fir - spruce
   FRES24  Hemlock - sitka spruce
   FRES26  Lodgepole pine
   FRES36  Mountain grasslands
   FRES37  Mountain Meadows
   FRES44  Alpine


STATES : 
     AK  AZ  CA  CO  CT  ID  IL  IN  IA  
     KS  ME  MA  MI  MN  MO  MT  NE  NV  
     NJ  NH  NM  NY  ND  OH  OR  PA  RI  
     SD  UT  VT  WA  WI  WY  
     
     AB  BC  NF  NT  PQ  SK  YT


ADMINISTRATIVE UNITS : 
     No entry


BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS : 
    1  Northern Pacific Border
    2  Cascade Mountains
    4  Sierra Mountains
    5  Columbia Plateau
    6  Upper Basin Range
    8  Northern Rocky Mountains
    9  Middle Rocky Mountains
   10  Wyoming Basin
   11  Southern Rocky Mountains
   12  Colorado Plateau
   14  Great Plains
   16  Upper Missouri Basin and Broken Lands


KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS : 
   K002  Cedar - hemlock - Douglas-fir forest
   K003  Silver fir - Douglas-fir forest
   K005  Mixed Conifer Forest
   K008  Lodgepole pine - subalpine forest
   K011  Western ponderosa forest
   K012  Douglas - fir forest
   K014  Grand fir - Douglas-fir forest
   K015  Western spruce - fir forest
   K018  Pine - Douglas-fir forest
   K019  Arizona pine forest
   K020  Spruce - fir - Douglas-fir forest
   K021  Southwestern spruce - fir forest
   K022  Great Basin pine forest
   K052  Alpine meadown and barren
   K094  Conifer Bog
   K106  Northern hardwoods
   K107  Northern hardwoods - fir forest
   K108  Northern hardwoods - spruce forest


SAF COVER TYPES : 
    12  Black spruce
    13  Black spruce - tamarack
    16  Aspen
    18  Paper birch
   201  White spruce
   202  White spruce - paper birch
   203  Balsam poplar
   204  Black spruce
   206  Englemann spruce - subalpine fir
   210  Interior Douglas-fir
   213  Grand fir
   215  Western white pine
   216  Blue spruce
   218  Lodgepole pine
   224  Western hemlock
   225  Western hemlock - sitka spruce
   226  Costal true fir - hemlock
   229  Pacific Douglas-fir
   230  Douglas-fir - western hemlock
   237  Interior ponderosa pine
   244  Pacific ponderosa pine - Douglas-fir
   245  Pacific ponderosa pine
   252  Paper birch
   253  Black spruce - white spruce
   254  Black spruce - paper birch


SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES : 
NO-ENTRY


HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES : 
Water sedge is often an indicator of riparian or other wetland habitats.
It occurs in disturbed habitats and seral communities, but also is found
in climax arctic habitats.  It is normally dominant or codominant on
sites where it occurs [5,8,21,30,60].

Water sedge is listed as an indicator in the following published
classifications:

Classification and environmental relationships of wetland vegetation in
  central Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming [46]
Forest vegetation of the Gunnison and parts of the Uncompahgre National
  Forests: a preliminary habitat type classification [40]
Riparian community type classification of Utah and southeastern Idaho [52]
Riparian dominance types of Montana [30]

Species commonly associated with water sedge are as follows:  willows
(Salix spp.), other sedges (Carex spp.), tufted hairgrass (Deschampsia
cespilosa), baltic rush (Juncus balticus), bog birch (Betula
glandulosa), leafy aster (Aster foliaceus), spike rush (Eleocharice
pauciflora), narrowleaf cottonsedge (Eriophorum angustifolium), entire
leaf mountain avens (Dryas integrifolia), reedgrasses (Calamagrostis
spp.), sphagnum mosses, and other species typical of riparian areas
[2,10,19,30,37].

VALUE AND USE
SPECIES: Carex aquatilis | Water Sedge 



WOOD PRODUCTS VALUE : 
NO-ENTRY


IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE : 
Water sedge is grazed by many ungulates, including moose, caribou, and
elk, but it is not a major component of their diet.  Due to the swampy
habitat of water sedge, grazing by most ungulates is limited [43,49,31].
Domestic livestock do not readily graze water sedge areas until the soil
surface dries in late summer [30].  Water sedge is resistant to grazing.

Water sedge habitat provides cover for some birds, waterfowl, and small
mammals [30].  Some particular birds associated with water sedge
habitats include the green-winged teal, the sandhill crane, the common
snipe, the common yellowthroat, the red-winged blackbird, and the song
sparrow [23].


PALATABILITY : 
Palatability of water sedge is good for horses, cattle, and sheep [8];
and fair for white-tailed deer and elk [30].  Palatability for
undomesticated ungulates varies seasonally and ranges from good to poor,
as shown below [16,19,43,49].

    species             palatability             season

Black-tailed deer       fair to poor       March to May
Caribou                 fair               early to midwinter
Musk-ox                 good to fair       summer
Moose                   good to fair       summer and early to midwinter
                                                

For grazing animals, food value of water sedge is generally fair.  Water
sedge and other sedges compose 70 to 80 percent of winter forage for
bison in northern Canada [3].  In Montana, the food value or degree of
use in upland game birds is poor, but fair for waterfowl, small nongame
birds, and small mammals [8,30].  A study of a water sedge community
showed that 40 percent of all water sedge shoots were eaten by lemmings
[3].


NUTRITIONAL VALUE : 
Water sedge serves as excellent forage in arctic areas.  It equals
clover in nutritional value and exceeds it in protein content [31].
Water sedge has also been reported to have fair energy and protein
values.  It is consumed in the winter months by lichen foragers, and
serves as a carbohydrate source [3].  Waterfowl eat the seeds of water
sedge, but they are probably not a major food source [23].

For one growing season, the mean nutrient concentration was measured.
The following are averaged measurements through the growing season [1].
The P/Ca ratio is fair, but the high concentration of calcium rates as
poor.

  Element                  mg per g of dry tissue weight
     K                                13.72
     N                                11.53
     Ca                                4.565
     Mg                                1.385
     P                                 1.256
     Na                                0.618
     Fe                                0.095
     Mn                                0.089
     Zn                                0.058
     Cu                                0.007

In Alaska, water sedge was found to have 5.4 percent protein and 53
percent carbohydrate in May [43].  For caribou, water sedge is a
semiessential dietary item, providing nutrients not present in lichens
[49].


COVER VALUE : 
Water sedge provides poor cover for elk and white-tailed deer [8].
Along streambanks, it provides fair cover for small mammals [48,30], and
water sedge bogs provide fair cover for waterfowl and small nongame
birds.  Waterfowl also use water sedge habitats for nesting cover [30].
The overhanging, rhizomatous masses of sod formed by water sedge on
streambanks provide shade and cover for fish [30].


VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES : 
Water sedge colonizes disturbed areas including firelines, vehicle
tracks in tundra, and oil spills [7,12,37,47,60].  One year after the
Wickersham fire in 1971 in Alaska, water sedge became abundant in the
firelines but was not found in the burned area.  The dense rhizomatous
mat formed by water sedge helps it withstand winter vehicle traffic and
recover quickly from summer traffic.  Offroad vehicles can cause serious
long-term damage to taiga and other watersedge habitats [7].

Water sedge's potential for erosion control has been rated as medium, as
has its potential for short- and long-term revegetation [8].  Studies
regarding traffic and oil spills have been conducted.  Water sedge
invaded oil-damaged areas well compared with other vascular plants, and
it appeared to have some tolerance to the toxic effects of crude oil
[7,37].  Natural succession at other disturbed sites, including
firelines, and burned and overgrazed areas, occurs rapidly, and sowing
exotic grasses is likely to interfere with, rather than promote, native
plant establishment.  The only exception to this would be where surface
erosion is severe [12].  Herbaceous cover may prevent erosion but will
do little to slow the thawing of underlying permafrost (where present)
[60].

Water sedge responds well to phosphorous fertilizer [47].


OTHER USES AND VALUES : 
NO-ENTRY


MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS : 
Potential biomass production for water sedge is high [8].  Water sedge
is resistant to grazing, but grazing in swampy habitat may result in
soil damage.  Livestock use often results in an increase in hummocking
and pitting of associated soils [52].  When packstock and hiker use
occurs on wet soil, formation of ruts can be severe.  New trails should
be built on adjacent uplands [8].

BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
SPECIES: Carex aquatilis | Water Sedge 



GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS : 
Water sedge is a native, water-obligate, long-lived perennial [8].  It
varies in height from 0.6 to 1.7 feet (20-140 cm) [58].  In arctic and
alpine populations, water sedge exhibits smaller tiller size and slower
leaf production [14].  The aerial stem and leaves are slender, flat, and
elongate.  The stems are smooth and rounded, and the glaucous-tipped
leaves are as long as or a little shorter than the culm.  Individual
shoots of water sedge live approximately 5 years, producing two to three
leaves per year.  The roots live two to three times longer than the
shoots [6].  In arctic systems, the roots are generally confined to the
top 8 to 12 inches (20-30 cm) of soil [19].  The rhizomes are coarse,
scaly, brown, and cordlike [34].  The rhizomes of water sedge grow
approximately 2.1 inches (5.3 cm) below the soil surface and form dense
clumps [20,3].  The dense rhizome network results in a tiller density of
11,000 to 22,000 shoots per square foot (1,000-2,000 shoots/m sq) [6,8].
This dense sod stabilizes soils and streambanks.  Water sedge in the
form of floating mats at lake and pond shores has been reported, but
this is not very common.


RAUNKIAER LIFE FORM : 
   Hemicryptophyte
   Cryptophyte


REGENERATION PROCESSES : 
Water sedge regenerates primarily through the spreading of underground
rhizomes [5,54].  Long and short rhizomes take part in vegetative
reproduction.  The long rhizomes branch to produce another plant.  The
short rhizomes produce more water sedge in tufts or "tiller clumps" [3].

Each year approximately 6 to 9 percent of the shoots flower, and few
viable seeds are produced [6].  Pollination occurs by wind.  Seed
germination rates vary between 20 and 60 percent [35].  Seedlings are
most common on drier sites, especially for C. aquatilis var. stans, and
on burned sites [7].
 
Sexual and vegetative reproduction rates are slow, resulting in limited
colonization.  A low rate of colonization has been found to correlate
with soil temperature and level of phosphorous in the soil [1].


SITE CHARACTERISTICS : 
Water sedge is found in areas of shallow water or immediately adjacent
to water [8].  These include swamps, wet meadows, pond or lake shores,
streams, old riverbanks, floodplains, fens or marshes, sedge meadow
tundra, silted-in beaver ponds, or any other low-lying area with
restricted water drainage [31,10,21,37].  It has also been found near
hot springs in Alaska [14].

The water regime best suited for water sedge is one with the water table
above ground level in early June and adequate moisture in the root zone
throughout the year [20,21].  Water sedge grows best on flat or concave
surfaces with a maximum slope of 10 percent [52].  Water sedge
habitats include mountainous regions, meadows, riparian zones, marshes, subarctic zones, and arctic tundra
[56,63,64].  The elevational range of water sedge is quite variable.
Following is a listing of the elevational ranges in various states
[8,14,24,30,42]:

    State               elevation (ft)           elevation (m)

Alaska                    14 to 13,500               5 to   500
California             5,000 to 10,500           1,852 to 3,889
Colorado               8,000 to 12,000           2,963 to 4,629
Montana                2,300 to  6,000             701 to 1,829
Utah                   8,000 to 11,000           2,963 to 4,074
Idaho (southeast)      8,000 to 11,000           2,963 to 4,074

Water sedge usually grows in soils belonging to one of three taxonomic
soil orders:  Histosol, Inceptisol (cryaquepts), or Mollisol (cruaquoll)
[39,59].  It grows best in cold soils with textures ranging from sandy
loam to clay [14,30].  The soil climate can vary from semiarid to humid
[21,59].  The soil reactions are slightly acidic, with a soil pH range
of 6.2 to 7.1 [8].  The organic matter is mainly composed of massive
roots and rhizomes, varying in degree of decomposition [6,52].  Water
sedge will also grow on mineral soils.  The soil characteristically has
a very high moisture-holding capacity with shallow to deep peat and a
shallow to moderate active layer [19,20].  It appears that phosphorous
is the limiting element of water sedge in wet tundra and meadows and
correlates with soil temperature in tiller height and number of leaves
[14].


SUCCESSIONAL STATUS : 
Water sedge is an opportunistic colonizer of suitable environments and
exposed mineral substrates [8,52].  It exists in seral and climax
communities in the arctic but is mainly reported in seral communities
[5].  Disturbed areas are colonized by seedling establishment on drier
sites and by vegetative expansion on wetter sites [47].  Water sedge is
long-lived and tends to replace shorter lived species such as cibola
milkvetch (Astragalus alpinus) and Mackenzie sweetvetch (Hedysarum
mackenzii) [12].  In immature fens, water sedge is a dominant species.
After water sedge establishment, further succession incorporates willow
and other shrubs into the community [21].  The water regime appears to
control succession in the Peace-Athabasca River delta.  Water sedge is a
strong competitor [19].  The rhizomes slowly invade bare, moist soils;
the formation of dense clumps makes it difficult for other species to
establish [6,8].  At disturbed sites, sedges initially are dominant, but
colonization is slow in arctic habitats due to low sexual reproduction
and tillering rates [6,12].


SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT : 
During the winter, 10 percent of green tissue survives, which gives
water sedge an early growing advantage in the spring.  Shoot growth is
completed in 30 to 35 days of the 50 to 55 day growing season in arctic
habitats [6].  Another source reported a leaf growing period of 35 to 40
days [19].  From May to late July, new leaf growth is plentiful.  Water
sedge normally flowers between May and June.  At higher elevations, it
may flower as late as August [58].

FIRE ECOLOGY
SPECIES: Carex aquatilis | Water Sedge 



FIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS : 
Water sedge recovers quickly from low-intensity fires.  The rhizomes of
water sedge are approximately 2 inches (5 cm) below the ground surface,
and well protected form the heat of fire.  The aqueous habitat also
provides protection for roots and rhizomes.  Better drained areas are
more susceptible to fires, especially during dry summers [54].  Water
sedge colonizes burned areas by seeds and also by long and short
rhizomes [3].  Within 1 year of fire in a sedge-tussock shrub tundra,
water sedge seedling establishment was observed in the intertussock
spaces [55].


POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY : 
   survivor species; on-site surviving rhizomes
   off-site colonizer; seed carried by animals or water;postfire yr 1&2

FIRE EFFECTS
SPECIES: Carex aquatilis | Water Sedge 



IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT : 
Water sedge is most vulnerable to fire during the drier seasons of late
summer and fall.  Low-intensity fires top-kill the vegetation with
little damage to the organic layer, and recovery is fairly rapid.  The
rhizomes of Carex species may be killed by severe fires that remove most
of the soil organic layer [55].


DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT : 
NO-ENTRY


PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE : 
Recovery from fires that remove the litter layer is quite rapid, and
productivity is temporarily increased [30].  Water sedge usually
recovers from low-severity fires within a year.  Early season fires that
remove none or very little of the organic layer, because of a shallow
active layer, allow water sedge to readily regrow from aboveground parts
and shallow rhizomes [55].

After severe fires that destroy the organic layer and kill the rhizomes,
water sedge must rely on seedling establishment for postfire recovery,
which may take up to 10 years [7,60,55].  There is usually an abundance
of Carex seedlings on charred peat surfaces [54].  Information regarding
fire effects on seed production and germination for this species is
lacking.

Sites where the organic layer is only partially burned provide poor
seedbeds, and most establishment in such areas is by vegetative means.
Cleared firelines provide exposed mineral soil and an abundance of
moisture for rapid revegetation [60].

Aboveground production on a 13-year-old burn site was 145 percent that
of preburn conditions.  Carex, Eriophorum, and Ledum composed 78 percent
of that production [5].


DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE : 
Tissue element levels typically increase in new tissue after a fire;
this increase corresponds to the increased quantities of available
elements in the soil.  One year following a fire in Elliott, Alaska, a
nutrient analysis of plant tissue showed a consistently higher nutrient
content in burned-site plants [7].  However, fires in the early spring
result in a sizeable loss of essential elements, due to maximum snowmelt
and spring runoff [1].


FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS : 
Water sedge is suited to prescribed burning [8].  Prescribed burning to
remove excess litter, especially in little grazed areas, results in a
temporary increase in plant productivity.  Usually a fire can not be
conducted until late summer or fall because of the moist habitat this
plant grows in [30].  In the year prior to burning, it is necessary to
restrict use by livestock.  Caution should be used when burning along
streambanks because of the erosion protection provided by water sedge
[8].

Auclair reported a fire incidence index for water sedge communities in
Quebec to be 58.3 [1].

References for species: Carex aquatilis

1. Auclair, Allan N. D. 1977. Factors affecting tissue nutrient concentrations in a Carex meadow. Oecologia. 28: 233-246. [14501]

2. Baker, William L. 1989. Classification of the riparian vegetation of the montane and subalpine zones in western Colorado. The Great Basin Naturalist. 49(2): 214-228. [7985]

3. Bernard, John M. 1990. Life history and vegetative reproduction in Carex. Canadian Journal of Botany. 68(7): 1441-1448. [14529]

4. Bernard, Stephen R.; Brown, Kenneth F. 1977. Distribution of mammals, reptiles, and amphibians by BLM physiographic regions and A.W. Kuchler's associations for the eleven western states. Tech. Note 301. Denver, CO: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. 169 p. [434]

5. Bliss, L. C. 1988. Arctic tundra and polar desert biome. In: Barbour, Michael G.; Billings, William Dwight, eds. North American terrestrial vegetation. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press: 1-32. [13877]

6. Bliss, L. C.; Grulke, N. E. 1988. Revegetation in the High Arctic: its role in reclamation of surface disturbance. In: Kershaw, Peter, ed. Northern environmental disturbances. Occas. Publ. No. 24. Edmonton, AB: University of Alberta, Boreal Institute for Northern Studies: 43-55. [14419]

7. Bliss, L. C.; Wein, R. W. 1972. Plant community responses to disturbances in the western Canadian Arctic. Canadian Journal of Botany. 50: 1097-1109. [14877]

8. Boggs, Keith; Hansen, Paul; Pfister, Robert; Joy, John. 1990. Classification and management of riparian and wetland sites in northwestern Montana. Missoula, MT: University of Montana, School of Forestry, Montana Forest and Conservation Experiment Station, Montana Riparian Association. 217 p. Draft Version 1. [8447]

9. Bonkoungou, G. J. E.; Raynal, D. J.; Geis, J. W. 1983. Tree population dynamics in relation to climate and forest history in the Oswegatchie Plains, northern New York. Vegetatio. 54: 37-59. [17363]

10. Brichta, Paul Harold. 1986. Environmental relationships among wetland community types of the northern range, Yellowstone National Park. Missoula, MT: University of Montana. 74 p. Thesis. [6727]

11. Brown, David E., ed. 1982. Biotic communities of the American Southwest--United States and Mexico. Desert Plants. 4(1-4): 342 p. Special Issue. [534]

12. Cargill, Susan M.; Chapin, F. Stuart, III. 1987. Application of successional theory to tundra restoration: a review. Arctic and Alpine Research. 19(4): 366-372. [8685]

13. Catling, P. M.; Reznicek, A. A.; Crins, W. J. 1990. Introduction. Canadian Journal of Botany. 68: 14005-1408. [14524]

14. Chapin, F. Stuart, III. 1981. Field measurements of growth and phosphate absorption in Carex aquatilis along a latitudianl gradient. Arctic and Alpine Research. 13(1): 83-94. [15085]

15. Christensen, Norman L. 1988. Vegetation of the southeastern Coastal Plain. In: Barbour, Michael G.; Billings, William Dwight, eds. North American terrestrial vegetation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 317-363. [17414]

16. Cowan, Ian McTaggart. 1945. The ecological relationships of the food of the Columbian black-tailed deer, Odocoileus hemionus columbianus (Richardson), in the coast forest region southern Vancouver Island, British Columbia. Ecological Monographs. 15(2): 110-139. [16006]

17. Currier, Paul J. 1989. Plant species composition and groundwater levels in a Platte River wet meadow. In: Bragg, Thomas B.; Stubbendieck, James, eds. Prairie pioneers: ecology, history and culture: Proceedings, 11th North American prairie conference; 1988 August 7-11; Lincoln, NE. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska: 19-24. [14013]

18. Curtis, John T. 1959. The vegetation of Wisconsin. Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Press. 657 p. [7116]

19. Daly, Tom; Raillard, Martin; Svoboda, Josef. 1989. Niche differentiation of Carex aquatillis var. stans & Eriophorum triste sharing the wet meadow habitat in Sverdrup Pass, Ellesmere Island, NWT. Musk-Ox. 37: 68-75. [18097]

20. Dirschl, H. J.; Coupland, R. T. 1972. Vegetation patterns and site relationships in the Saskatchewan River Delta. Canadian Journal of Botany. 50: 647-675. [7449]

21. Dirschl, German J.; Dabbs, Don L.; Gentle, Garry C. 1974. Landscape classification and plant successional trends in the Peace-Athabasca Delta. Canadian Wildlife Service Report Series 30. Ottawa, ON: Canadian Wildlife Service. 33 p. [6177]

22. Dix, R. L.; Swan, J. M. A. 1971. The roles of disturbance and succession in upland forest at Candle Lake, Saskatchewan. Canadian Journal of Botany. 49: 657-676. [12808]

23. Douglas, David C.; Ratti, John T. 1984. Avian habitat associations in riparian zones of the Centennial Mountains and surrounding areas, Idaho. Pullman, WA: Washington State University, Department of Zoology, Wildlife Biology. 125 p. [14928]

24. Elliott-Fisk, Deborah L. 1988. The boreal forest. In: Barbour, Michael G.; Billings, William Dwight, eds. North American terrestrial vegetation. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press: 33-62. [13878]

25. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Washington, DC: Society of American Foresters. 148 p. [905]

26. Fernald, Merritt Lyndon. 1950. Gray's manual of botany. [Corrections supplied by R. C. Rollins]. Portland, OR: Dioscorides Press. 1632 p. (Dudley, Theodore R., gen. ed.; Biosystematics, Floristic & Phylogeny Series; vol. 2) [14935]

27. Garrison, George A.; Bjugstad, Ardell J.; Duncan, Don A.; [and others]. 1977. Vegetation and environmental features of forest and range ecosystems. Agric. Handb. 475. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 68 p. [998]

28. Graham, Dean Chalmus. 1978. Grizzly bear distribution, use of habitats, food habits and habitat characterization in Pelican & Hayden Valleys, Yellowstone National Park. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University. 124 p. M.S. thesis. [5165]

29. Great Plains Flora Association. 1986. Flora of the Great Plains. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas. 1392 p. [1603]

30. Hansen, Paul L.; Chadde, Steve W.; Pfister, Robert D. 1988. Riparian dominance types of Montana. Misc. Publ. No. 49. Missoula, MT: University of Montana, School of Forestry, Montana Forest and Conservation Experiment Station. 411 p. [5660]

31. Hermann, Frederick J. 1970. Manual of the Carices of the Rocky Mountains and Colorado Basin. Agric. Handb. 374. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 397 p. [1139]

32. Henry, G. H. R.; Gunn, A. 1991. Recovery of tundra vegetation after overgrazing by caribou in arctic Canada. Arctic. 44(1): 38-42. [14747]

33. Hitchcock, C. Leo; Cronquist, Arthur. 1973. Flora of the Pacific Northwest. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press. 730 p. [1168]

34. Hulten, Eric. 1968. Flora of Alaska and neighboring territories. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. 1008 p. [13403]

35. Kerans, Karen. 1990. Country Wetlands Nursery Ltd. Restoration & Management Notes. 8(1): 29-31. [14513]

36. Kershaw, K. A. 1974. Studies on lichen-dominated systems. X. The sedge meadows of the coastal raised beaches. Canadian Journal of Botany. 52: 1947-1972. [12966]

37. Kershaw, G. Peter; Kershaw, Linda J. 1986. Ecological characteristics of 35-year-old crude-oil spills in tundra plant communities of the Mackenzie Mountains, N.W.T. Canadian Journal of Botany. 64: 2935-2947. [12972]

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