Introductory
SPECIES: Sorghum halepense | Johnson Grass 



ABBREVIATION : 
SORHAL

SYNONYMS : 
NO-ENTRY


SCS PLANT CODE : 
   SOHA


COMMON NAMES : 
   Johnson grass
   Egyptian millet


TAXONOMY : 
The currently accepted scientific name of Johnson grass is Sorghum
halepense (L.) Pers. (Poaceae) [24, 36].


LIFE FORM : 
Graminoid

FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS : 
No special status

OTHER STATUS : 
NO-ENTRY


COMPILED BY AND DATE : 
S. A. Snyder, March 1992


LAST REVISED BY AND DATE : 
NO-ENTRY


AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION : 
Snyder, S. A. 1992. Sorghum halepense. In: Remainder of Citation

DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
SPECIES: Sorghum halepense | Johnson Grass 



GENERAL DISTRIBUTION : 
Johnson grass occurs in all major agricultural areas in the world [35].
In the United States it has spread nationwide since 1900.  It now occurs
as far north as Ontario [36].  It may occur in every state with the
possible exception of Maine, Vermont, New Hampshire, Montana, and North
and South Dakota.


ECOSYSTEMS : 
   FRES17  Elm - ash - cottonwood
   FRES30  Desert shrub
   FRES31  Shinnery
   FRES32  Texas savanna
   FRES33  Southwestern shrubsteppe
   FRES34  Chaparral - mountain shrub
   FRES38  Plains grasslands
   FRES39  Prairie
   FRES40  Desert grasslands
   FRES41  Wet grasslands
   FRES42  Annual grasslands


STATES : 
     AL  AK  AZ  AR  CA  CO  CT  DE  FL  GA
     HI  ID  IL  IN  IA  KS  KY  LA  MD  MA
     MI  MN  MS  MO  NE  NV  NJ  NM  NY  NC
     OH  OK  OR  PA  RI  SC  TN  TX  UT  VA
     WA  WV  WY  ON  MEXICO


ADMINISTRATIVE UNITS : 
     AMIS  BIBE  BITH  BUFF  CANY  CAHA
     CACA  CHCH  CHIR  COLO  DEVA  EVER
     FODO  GWCA  GRCA  GRSM  GUMO  GUIS
     HOBE  HOSP  LAMR  MACA  MOCA  NATR
     NERI  OBRI  ORPI  OZAR  PAIS  PEFO
     RICH  SAGU  SAMO  SHIL  ZION


BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS : 
    3  Southern Pacific Border
    4  Sierra Mountains
    5  Columbia Plateau
    6  Upper Basin and Range
    7  Lower Basin and Range
   10  Wyoming Basin
   11  Southern Rocky Mountains
   12  Colorado Plateau
   13  Rocky Mountain Peidmont
   14  Great Plains


KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS : 
   K027  Mesquite bosque
   K033  Chaparral
   K040  Saltbush - greasewood
   K041  Creosotebush
   K042  Creosotebush - bursage
   K043  Palo verde - cactus shrub
   K044  Creosotebush - tarbush
   K045  Ceniza shrub
   K053  Grama - galleta steppe
   K054  Grama - tobosa prairie
   K057  Galleta - threeawn shrubsteppe
   K058  Grama - tobosa shrubsteppe
   K059  Trans-Pecos shrub savanna
   K060  Mesquite savanna
   K062  Mesquite - live oak savanna
   K069  Bluestem - grama prairie
   K070  Sandsage - bluestem prairie
   K071  Shinnery
   K073  Northern cordgrass prairie
   K074  Bluestem prairie
   K075  Nebraska Sandhills prairie
   K076  Blackland prairie
   K077  Bluestem - sacahuista prairie
   K080  Marl - Everglades
   K081  Oak savanna
   K084  Cross Timbers
   K085  Mesquite - buffalograss
   K092  Everglades


SAF COVER TYPES : 
    63  Cottonwood
    68  Mesquite
    89  Live oak
   242  Mesquite


SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES : 
NO-ENTRY


HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES : 
NO-ENTRY

VALUE AND USE
SPECIES: Sorghum halepense | Johnson Grass 



WOOD PRODUCTS VALUE : 
NO-ENTRY


IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE : 
Rodents eat the seeds of this species [1].

Although Johnson grass is an undesirable weed species, it is a valuable
forage and hay grass for livestock.  It may, however, cause prussic acid
or hydrocyanic acid poisoning in cattle [19].  This danger is most
prevalent following drought or frost and just before pollination
[23,31].  Young leaves of Johnson grass have the highest level of cyanide
and can be highly toxic when heavily fertilized.  Burrow and others [6]
detail symptoms and treatments for livestock poisoning from
Johnson grass.


PALATABILITY : 
NO-ENTRY


NUTRITIONAL VALUE : 
Percent digestible organic matter of leaves and stems for spring,
summer, and fall is as follows [18]:

              spring         summer       fall

leaves         73%            ---          63%
leaves/stems   ---            70%          ---


COVER VALUE : 
NO-ENTRY


VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES : 
Johnson grass is sometimes used to rehabilitate overgrazed ranges in the
Southwest [10].


OTHER USES AND VALUES : 
Historically, Pima Indians ate Johnson grass seeds [19]. 


MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS : 
Johnson grass is considered one of the ten worst weed species in North
America, despite its use in revegetation projects and for hay [26].  It
can take over irrigation ditches and field crops, as well as produce
much pollen, to which many people are allergic [19,30].  As its parts
decay, Johnson grass inhibits the growth of other species and
nitrogen-fixing bacteria with the release of dhurrin [39].  The ecotype
that spreads mainly by rhizomes is much harder to control than the seed
reproducing ecotype [26].  Chemicals are usually effective in control of
Johnson grass, as is proper crop rotation and management [9,13,16].
Polyethylene sheets tightly covering small plots of Johnson grass may
also be an effective and nontoxic control method [3].  Johsongrass may
also be controlled through fall and winter cultivation, which exposes
the cold-sensitive rhizomes (down to 27 deg F (-5 deg C)) [22].

BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
SPECIES: Sorghum halepense | Johnson Grass 



GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS : 
Johnson grass is an exotic, warm-season, rhizomatous, perennial
graminoid.  Its stems are typically 1.5 to 4.5 feet (0.5-1.5 m) high,
occasionally reaching heights of 6 to 7 feet (3-3.3 m) [14,16].  Its
purplish panicles are 4 to 12 inches (10-30 cm) long, and leaves are 4
to 20 inches (10-50 cm) long [24].  Rhizomes can be as much as 0.5
inches (1 cm) in diameter and 6 feet (2 m) long [35].  The awned, ovoid
seeds are brown [16].


RAUNKIAER LIFE FORM : 
   Geophyte
   Phanerophyte


REGENERATION PROCESSES : 
Johnson grass recolonizes both by seed and from extensive, creeping
rhizomes [16,24].  Rhizomes can be as deep as 15.7 to 19.7 inches (40-50
cm); the bulk of the rhizomes are found 9.8 inches (25 cm) below the
soil surface [36].  McWhorter [22] found rhizomes in clay in the top 3
inches (7.5 cm) of soil, and rhizomes growing in sandy loams were in the
top 5 inches (12.5 cm) of soil.  Rhizomes at a depth of 7.9 inches (20
cm) can be killed at temperatures below 15 degrees F (-9 deg C).
Likewise, exposure to temperatures between 86 and 95 degrees F (30-35
deg C) for 7 days can kill rhizomes [35].  Johnson grass also produces a
large quantity of viable seeds (from 540-1,440 dm3 per ha) [35].


SITE CHARACTERISTICS : 
Johnson grass invades low-elevation wet places, irrigation ditches, waste
areas, roadsides, cropfields, and other disturbed places in temperate
climates [12,16,24,35].  In Utah it is found between 850 and 1,500 feet
(259-457 m) in elevation [38].  In Arizona it can invade places as high
as 6,000 feet (1,829 m) [19].  Some associate species include honey
mesquite (Prosopis glandulosa), Texas persimmon (Diospyros texana), live
oak (Quercus fusiformis), eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides), willow
(Salix spp.), Mexican elder (Sambacus), Douglas sagewort (Artemesia
douglasiana), horsetail (Equisetum spp.), sedge (Carex spp.), ragweed
(Ambrosia spp.), smartweed (Polygonum spp.), devilweed aster (Aster
spinosus), hardstem bulrush (Scirpus acutus), sweetclover (Melilotus
spp.), and panic grass (Panicum spp.)  [8,17,29,34].  Some crop species
invaded by Johnson grass include corn (Zea mays), alfalfa (Malidago
spp.), grapes (Vitis spp.), and cotton (Gossypium spp.)[16].


SUCCESSIONAL STATUS : 
Facultative Seral Species

Johnson grass invades native grasslands subjected to unnatural frequent
flooding [17].  It is early successional in riparian types of California
[8].  Johnson grass can sometimes be dominant with shrubs in Oklahoma
tallgrass prairies [7].


SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT : 
Flowering dates for Johnson grass have been recorded for May through
November [14,19,24].  Flowering in Johnson grass is highly dependent on
temperature, while water availability and nitrogen concentration do not
have much effect [5].

FIRE ECOLOGY
SPECIES: Sorghum halepense | Johnson Grass 



FIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS : 
Johnson grass survives fire by sprouting from deep rhizomes [27].


POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY : 
   Rhizomatous herb, rhizome in soil

FIRE EFFECTS
SPECIES: Sorghum halepense | Johnson Grass 



IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT : 
NO-ENTRY


DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT : 
NO-ENTRY


PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE : 
Johnson grass increases following fire [27].


DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE : 
A mid-March prescribed burn in Georgia resulted in an increase of
Johnson grass.  Unburned plots supported 0.20 g/m2 ovendry weight of
Johnson grass for that season, while burned plots supported 27.42 g/m2
[27].  The summer following the burn, Johnson grass dominated the burned
plots.


FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS : 
NO-ENTRY

References for species: Sorghum halepense

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2. Anderson, Darwin; Hamilton, Louis P.; Reynolds, Hudson G.; Humphrey, Robert R. 1953. Reseeding desert grassland ranges in southern Arizona. Bulletin 249. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona, Agricultural Experiment Station. 32 p. [4439]

3. Bainbridge, David A. 1990. Soil solarization for restorationists. Restoration & Management Notes. 8(2): 96-98. [14160]

4. Bernard, Stephen R.; Brown, Kenneth F. 1977. Distribution of mammals, reptiles, and amphibians by BLM physiographic regions and A.W. Kuchler's associations for the eleven western states. Tech. Note 301. Denver, CO: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. 169 p. [434]

5. Bridges, D. C.; Chandler, J. M. 1989. A population level temperature-dependent model of seedling Johnson grass (Sorghum halepense) flowering. Weed Science. 37: 471-477. [17406]

6. Burrows, George E.; Tyrl, Ronald J.; Rollins, Dale; [and others]. [n.d.]. Toxic plants of Oklahoma and the Southern Plains. E-868. Stillwater, OK: Oklahoma State University, Cooperative Extension Service. 40 p. [4994]

7. Collins, S. L.; Adams, D. E. 1983. Succession in grasslands: thirty-two years of change in a central Oklahoma tallgrass prairie. Vegetatio. 51: 181-190. [2929]

8. Eleuterius, Lionel N. 1975. The life history of the salt marsh rush, Juncus roemerianus. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club. 102(3): 135-140. [16946]

9. Conn, Jeffery S.; Deck, Richard E. 1991. Bluejoint reedgrass (Calamagrostis canadensis) control with glyphosate and additives. Weed Technology. 5: 521-524. [17408]

10. Cox, Jerry R.; Morton, Howard L.; Johnsen, Thomas N., Jr.; [and others]. 1982. Vegetation restoration in the Chihuahuan and Sonoran Deserts of North America. Agricultural Reviews and Manuals ARM-W-28. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Research Service. 37 p. [4600]

11. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Washington, DC: Society of American Foresters. 148 p. [905]

12. Felger, Richard S. 1990. Non-native plants of Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument, Arizona. Tech. Rep. No. 31. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona, School of Renewable Natural Resources, Cooperative National Park Resources Studies Unit. 93 p. [14916]

13. Felker, Peter; Gregory, Rick; Gathaara, Gideon; Russell, Charles. 1989. Recent advances in cultural practices for prickly pear. In: Hanselka, C. Wayne; Paschal, Joe C., eds. Developing prickly pear as a forage, fruit, and vegetable resource: Proceedings; 1989 July 14; Kingsville, TX. Kingsville, TX: Texas A&I University: 53-63. [12195]

14. Fernald, Merritt Lyndon. 1950. Gray's manual of botany. [Corrections supplied by R. C. Rollins]. Portland, OR: Dioscorides Press. 1632 p. (Dudley, Theodore R., gen. ed.; Biosystematics, Floristic & Phylogeny Series; vol. 2) [14935]

15. Garrison, George A.; Bjugstad, Ardell J.; Duncan, Don A.; [and others]. 1977. Vegetation and environmental features of forest and range ecosystems. Agric. Handb. 475. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 68 p. [998]

16. Hamilton, K. C.; Arle, H. F.; McRae, G. N. 1960. Control and indentification of crop weeds in southern Arizona. Bulletin 296. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona, Agricultural Experiment Station. 67 p. [5096]

17. Harrington, George; Capel, Stephen. 1978. Effects of a water resource development project on native prairie in the Flint Hills of Kansas. In: Glenn-Lewin, David C.; Landers, Roger Q., Jr., eds. Proceedings, 5th Midwest prairie conference; 1976 August 22-24; Ames, IA. Ames, IA: Iowa State University: 166-168. [3371]

18. Huston, J. E.; Rector, B. S.; Merrill, L. B.; Engdahl, B. S. 1981. Nutritional value of range plants in the Edwards Plateau region of Texas. Report B-1375. College Station, TX: Texas A&M University System, Texas Agricultural Experiment Station. 16 p. [4565]

19. Kearney, Thomas H.; Peebles, Robert H.; Howell, John Thomas; McClintock, Elizabeth. 1960. Arizona flora. 2d ed. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. 1085 p. [6563]

20. Kuchler, A. W. 1964. Manual to accompany the map of potential vegetation of the conterminous United States. Special Publication No. 36. New York: American Geographical Society. 77 p. [1384]

21. Lyon, L. Jack; Stickney, Peter F. 1976. Early vegetal succession following large northern Rocky Mountain wildfires. In: Proceedings, Tall Timbers fire ecology conference and Intermountain Fire Research Council fire and land management symposium; 1974 October 8-10; Missoula, MT. No. 14. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research Station: 355-373. [1496]

22. McWhorter, C. G. 1972. Factors affecting Johnson grass rhizome production and germination. Weed Science. 20(1): 41-45. [17452]

23. Mueggler, W. F. 1970. Objectionable characteristics of range plants. In: Range and wildlife habitat evaluation--a research symposium: Proceedings; 1968 May; Flagstaff; Tempe, AZ. Misc. Publ. 1147. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 63-70. [12986]

24. Munz, Philip A. 1973. A California flora and supplement. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. 1905 p. [6155]

25. Northam, F. E.; Callihan, R. H.; Old, R. R. 1991. Range extensions of four introduced grasses in Idaho. Journal of the Idaho Academy of Science. 27(1): 19-21. [17409]

26. Obrigawitch, T. T.; Kenyon, W. H.; Kuratle, H. 1990. Effect of application timing on rhizome Johnson grass (Sorghum halepense) control with DPX-V9360. Weed Science. 38: 45-49. [17404]

27. Odum, Eugene P.; Pomeroy, Steven E.; Dickinson, J. C., III; Hutcheson, Kermit. 1974. The effects of late winter litter burn on the composition, productivity and diversity of a 4-year old fallow-field in Georgia. In: Proceedings, annual Tall Timbers fire ecology conference; 1973 March 22-23; Tallahassee, FL. No. 13. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research Station: 399-419. [17413]

28. Ferguson, Dennis E.; Boyd, Raymond J. 1988. Bracken fern inhibition of conifer regeneration in northern Idaho. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 11 p. [2834]

29. Rea, Amadeo M. 1988. Habitat restoration and avian recolonization from wastewater on the Middle Gila River, Arizona. In: Whitehead, E. E. [and others], eds. Proceedings, Arid lands conference; 1985; Tucson, AZ. [Place of publication unknown]: Bellhaven/Westview Press: 1395-1405. [9823]

30. Sims, Barry D.; Oliver, Lawrence R. 1990. Mutual influences of seedling Johnson grass (Sorghum halepense), sicklepod (Cassia obtusifolia), and soybean (Glycine max). Weed Science. 38: 139-147. [11809]

31. Stephens, H. A. 1980. Poisonous plants of the central United States. Lawrence, KS: The Regents Press of Kansas. 165 p. [3803]

32. Stoller, E. W. 1977. Differential cold tolerance of quackgrass and Johnson grass rhizomes. Weed Science. 25(4): 348-351. [17422]

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34. Van Auken, O. W.; Bush, J. K. 1991. Influence of shade and herbaceous competition on the seedling growth of two woody species. Madrono. 38(3): 149-157. [16572]

35. Warwick, S. I.; Black, L. D. 1983. The biology of Canadian weeds. 61. Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers. Canadian Journal of Plant Science. 63: 997-1014. [17451]

36. Warwick, S. I.; Phillips, D.; Andrews, C. 1986. Rhizome depth: the critical factor in winter survival of Sorghum halepen halepense (L.) pers. (Johnson grass). Weed Research. 26: 381-387. [10037]

37. Wharwick, S. I.; Thompson, B. K.; Black, L. D. 1984. Population variation in Sorghum halepense, Johnson grass, at the northern limits of its range. Canadian Journal of Botany. 62: 1781-1790. [17407]

38. Welsh, Stanley L.; Atwood, N. Duane; Goodrich, Sherel; Higgins, Larry C., eds. 1987. A Utah flora. The Great Basin Naturalist Memoir No. 9. Provo, UT: Brigham Young University. 894 p. [2944]

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40. Stickney, Peter F. 1989. Seral origin of species originating in northern Rocky Mountain forests. Unpublished draft on file at: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT; RWU 4403 files. 10 p. [20090]

Related categories for Species: Sorghum halepense | Johnson Grass