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Wildlife, Animals, and Plants |
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INTRODUCTORY
ABBREVIATION:ABIGRA SYNONYMS:No entry NRCS PLANT CODE [186]:ABGR COMMON NAMES:
grand fir TAXONOMY:
The scientific name of grand fir is Abies grandis (Dougl.) Lindl. (Pinaceae) [104,110,102]. LIFE FORM:Tree FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS:No special status OTHER STATUS:No entry AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION:Howard, Janet L.; Aleksoff, Keith C. (2000, June). Abies grandis. In: Remainder of Citation Species Index FEIS Home DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION:
Grand fir has a split distribution. Along the Pacific Coast it occurs from southern British Columbia south to Sonoma County, California, and east to the Cascade Range of central Oregon. In the continental interior it occurs from the Okanagan and Kootenay lakes region of British Columbia south to eastern Oregon, central Idaho, and west of the Continental Divide in Montana [71,174]. ECOSYSTEMS [77]:
FRES20 Douglas-fir STATES:
SUCCESSIONAL STATUS:
Grand fir occurs in the overstory of both seral and late-successional forests [9,71,91,47,52,83,87]. It is climax throughout the grand fir series and is a major seral species
in some western redcedar, western hemlock, subalpine fir, and Pacific silver fir habitat types [91]. It exhibits moderate growth in the open, yet is shade-tolerant enough to establish and grow beneath an open forest canopy [9,60,130,145,183]. Grand fir is not as shade-tolerant as western redcedar, hemlocks, or other firs and does not establish beneath a closed canopy [71,156,148,155,187,183]. Succession to a grand fir overstory is usually slower on shrubfields than on sites where grand fir developed beneath a forest canopy [10,49,157]. In grand fir habitats on Clearwater River drainages in northern Idaho, succession to a woody overstory was retarded by bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum) or western coneflower (Rudbeckia occidentalis) invasion, and by northern pocket gopher browsing young grand fir and other conifer regeneration [59]. SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT:
Time of grand fir budding varies over several months depending on early spring temperatures. Generally, budding occurs from late March to mid-May at low elevations and in
June at higher elevations [71,75]. Shoot elongation follows bud burst; cones generally open for pollination during shoot elongation [54,75]. Cones ripen from August to September of the same year and begin to disintegrate and dispense seed about a month
later [71,75].
Phenological observations of grand fir made over an 8-year period in northern Idaho and western Montana are summarized below [157]:
FIRE ECOLOGYFIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS:Adaptations to fire: Grand fir is moderately resistant to frequent surface fire. It has thin bark and is easily killed when young, but the bark is thick enough at maturity (about 2 inches (5 cm)) to provide resistance to low- and moderate-severity fires [3,169,44,50,69,89,92]. Compared to other Pacific Coast conifers, it is less fire resistant than coastal Douglas-fir but more so than western hemlock and Pacific silver fir [70]. Inland, it is less fire resistant than western larch, Pacific ponderosa pine, and Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir; about the same as white fir; and more fire resistant than western white pine, subalpine fir, Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii), and Rocky Mountain lodgepole pine [148,70]. Fire-scarred grand fir are susceptible to heart rot [7,9,14,108,62]. Grand fir does not survive crowning or severe fire. Its low, dense branching habit, flammable foliage, and tendency to develop dense stands with heavy lichen growth increase the likelihood of torching and mortality from crown fire [44,50,69,169]. Fire strongly influences grand fir's ecological niche and successional role [91,108]. In coastal British Columbia grand fir occurs in areas of relatively low summer rainfall and high summer temperatures, suggesting that its range may be restricted to sites with higher fire frequencies compared to moister surrounding forests with longer fire return intervals [155]. On many Pacific Northwest sites, however, grand fir only dominates sites where fire is excluded. Fire history studies show that Oregon white oak, Port-Orford-cedar (Chamaecyparis lawsoniana), Pacific ponderosa pine, western larch, and/or coastal Douglas-fir were maintained as site dominants by frequent surface fires that eliminated young grand fir [90,91,81]. After cessation of Native American burning in the Willamette Valley of Oregon (around 1850), grand fir has successionally replaced Oregon white oak and coastal Douglas-fir on most sites. Coastal Douglas-fir retains dominance only on the driest sites in the valley [42]. Although grand fir is not usually seral on sites with frequent fires, it may be either climax or seral on sites that experience infrequent crown fires [91].Fire regimes: Fires in grand fir types were historically of mixed severity, with fire behaviors ranging from frequent low-severity, nonlethal surface fire to infrequent, stand-replacing crown fire [9,3,5,18,139,12,166,19]. The grand fir series can roughly be divided into warm/dry types and warm/moist types. In warm/dry types, the historical fire regime was frequent (5-50 year), low-severity fire that favored Pacific ponderosa pine and western larch [11,34,170,190]. For example, a mean fire return interval of 47 years is reported for the Blue Mountains [190], with a range of 33 to 100 years [194]. Historically, fire severity in grand fir types of the Blue Mountains was often moderate, with a wider range of fire severities than Douglas-fir types [3]. Dry grand fir/graminoid types with understories of elk sedge or pinegrass typically experienced frequent surface fires (10- to 25-year intervals) [6,128,191]. Fire regimes in northern Idaho and western Montana were historically similar to those in the Blue Mountains, but fire return intervals showed a wider range (3-200 years) [9,11]. On a dry site in the Bitterroot National Forest of western Montana, Arno [162,171] reported a mean fire return interval of 17 years between 1735 and 1900, with a range of 3 to 32 years. He attributed the short fire return interval to the relative scarcity of the grand fir series there, so that grand fir had "fire frequencies much like those in surrounding major series" such as Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir [16,12]. Mixed-severity fires with longer return intervals (25-100 years) were more common on cooler, moderately moist grand fir types with Rocky Mountain maple, Pacific yew, oak fern (Gymnocarpium dryoptera), or sword fern (Polystichum munitum) understories. Fire regimes shifted to moderate severity on these wetter sites, and stand-replacement fires were more common [3,6,34,12,166,19]. Fire-scarred, mature grand fir trees in northern Idaho have withstood moderate-severity surface fires once or twice a century [18]. Camp [34] reported that fire history was complex on warm/moist forests of the eastern slope of the Cascade Range in Washington, with evidence of both frequent, low-severity fires and infrequent severe, stand-replacing fires. Sites experiencing severe fire often escaped fire through 2 to 3 surface fire cycles that occurred in surrounding forest. These long-unburned sites developed into multi-layered grand fir forest that functioned as old-growth fire refugia until the next severe fire cycle. Presettlement sites of fire refugia occurred most often on north-facing aspects, benches, valley bottoms, and stream confluences and headwalls [34,35]. Long-interval (> 100 years), severe fires were most common on wet grand fir habitat types [12,166,19]. Moist types are highly productive and have large fuel loads [94]. Barrett [18] found that fires in grand fir of the Clearwater National Forest in northern Idaho were usually large and exhibited behavior of (1) moderate to severe surface fires that killed the grand fir but left a few fire-resistant seral conifers, and (2) running crown fires (with individual runs of several hundred acres) that killed entire stands. Even given this extreme fire behavior, there was also evidence of low-severity surface fires, particularly on north slopes, that scarred but did not kill grand fir [18]. Barrett and Arno [19] found that patchy, stand-replacement fires with a mean return interval of 119 years typified fire regimes in Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir/grand fir habitats of the Selway-Bitterroot Wilderness in northern Idaho. A minority of stands experienced mixed-severity fire of nonuniform spread. Long-interval, stand-replacing fire also occurred historically in the relatively moist Swan Valley of western Montana. The Swan Valley also shows evidence of a mixed fire regime, with a mosaic of stands of varying age and composition [9]. Fire return intervals in the Swan Valley ranged from 20 to 300+ years, with a mean of 150 years [9,10]. Fire regimes for plant communities and ecosystems where grand fir is a common associate are summarized below.
POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY [177]:
Tree without adventitious bud/root crown FIRE EFFECTS
IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT:
Young grand fir have thin bark and are easily killed by fire [109,112]. Trees under 4 inches (10.2 cm) diameter at ground level are most susceptible to direct fire mortality [89,92]. The bark thickens as trees age, and mature trees are moderately resistant to fire [12,34]. Ground fires burning into the duff injure shallow roots and may kill even mature trees [44,67,71,108,164]. DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT:Because grand fir wood does not contain decay-inhibiting properties nor exude pitch over wounds, trees that survive fire are susceptible to the entry of decay fungi through fire scars and stimulation of dormant decay by fire injury. The problem is more serious east of the Cascade Range crest because of the ubiquitousness of Indian paint fungus in the eastern portion of grand fir's range. [7,8,9,14,16,108,62]. PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE:
Grand fir regeneration is common after fire [9,155]. Seedlings establish on burns mostly from off-site seed sources [8,109,182]. Mature grand fir that survive a fire provide an on-site seed source [8]. Fire provides a favorable seedbed. When different substrates were compared, grand fir germination was best on ash or mineral soil [69,162]; however, seedling mortality may be higher on burned soils due to higher surface temperatures on blackened compared to unburned soils [159]. Seedlings often establish in the 1st few postfire years. For example, following a severe wildfire in a mature grand fir/queencup beadlily association in the Blue Mountains of Oregon, grand fir seedlings were 1st noted in study plots at postfire year 5 [109]. Following the Sundance Fire in northern Idaho, grand fir seedlings were 1st noted in postfire years 4 to 9, with time of 1st emergence varying among study plots. [176]. Because grand fir seedlings are not as drought tolerant as many conifer associates, grand fir establishment is sometimes slow or delayed by drought, but grand fir is usually established as component of seral vegetation by 20 to 30 years after fire [133,196]. Grand fir regeneration is also common after fire thins a dense overstory [9]. As a shade-tolerant tree, grand fir continues to establish until canopy closure in late succession [112]. DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE:
In northeastern Oregon, 3 wildfire sites were selected to study fire's effects on late-seral grand fir/big huckleberry associations. Two sites were severely burned, and 1 site was lightly underburned. The severe fires killed all overstory and understory grand fir. The low-severity fire was continuous with fire scorching only the basal portion of the large-diameter (30-40 inch (76-102 cm)) trees. The low-severity fire reduced overstory grand fir coverage from 55 to 40%, and the understory was reduced from 10 to 5%. A thicket of grand fir saplings was reduced by 30% [109]. FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS:
Historically, low-severity surface fires and patchy, mixed-severity fires killed young grand fir and Douglas-fir in the understory while favoring early-seral, fire-tolerant tree species including Oregon white oak, ponderosa pine, Douglas-fir, and western larch [81,111,190,191]. Once open, park-like stands are being invaded by grand fir, other firs, and Douglas-fir, resulting in poor regeneration of early-successional trees [81,15,34,130,190,191]. Fuel loads have increased and produced very fire-prone communities with high probabilities of crown fires [91,92]. Fire exclusion has altered forest structure and affected understory vegetation [111]. Stands have developed understories or multiple canopy layers of grand fir and other shade-tolerant species [34]. These understories may be extremely dense, often thousands of stems per acre. Without fire, understory grand fir usually develop into thickets of stressed trees [15].
In a literature summary, Minore [148] reports that fire spread in fresh grand fir slash is intermediate compared to slash of 7 associated conifers. Fire spread in 1-year-old grand fir slash is slower than fire spread in 1-year-old slash of all associated conifers except western larch, in which fire spread is similar. Photo guides have been prepared for appraising slash fuels in grand fir forests of northern Idaho, and for downed woody fuels in grand fir, western larch, and Douglas-fir forests of Montana [67,119]. Fuel models: Brown [24] and Moeur [135] present equations for predicting crown width and foliage biomass of grand fir and associated conifers. Keane and others [112] predict that decomposition rates of litter in grand fir-dominated forests are an order of magnitude less than in ponderosa pine or Douglas-fir forests. Fire behavior models: Agee [4] provides models for predicting stand conditions that initiate crown fire in grand fir and other western forest types based on the critical surface fire intensity needed to initiate crowning (equation 1), and for identifying conditions that allow crown fire to spread (equation 2): Io = (Czh)3/2 (equation 1) where Io = critical surface intensity C = 0.010 (constant) z = crown base height h = heat of ignition (largely a function of crown moisture content), and E = Rdh (equation 2) where E = net horizontal heat flux, kW/m2 R = rate of spread, m/sec d = bulk density of crown, kg/m3 h = heat of ignition, kJ/kg Restoration: The general objective of restorative management is to develop open stands of seral conifers resembling stands maintained by historic fire regimes. Restoring presettlement stand conditions and fire regimes to grand fir habitats also reduces stand susceptibility to outbreaks of insect and fungi [37]. Because of dense understories of grand fir and other shade tolerant conifers, it is usually necessary to begin restoration with a "low thinning" treatment that removes excess understory and weak understory trees. Low-severity prescribed fire is then conducted to reduce fuel loadings, kill understory conifers, and promote herbaceous and shrub species in the understory. Once thinning and burning are accomplished, the stand can be maintained by periodic underburning alone, at 15- to 30-year intervals [15]. A selection cutting that retains many of the dominant overstory trees also helps maintain open-stand conditions when tree harvesting is an objective [15,38]. Range productivity: Some sites are less useful for livestock grazing as a result of fire exclusion [111]. Hall [90] reported that in the Blue Mountains of Oregon, forests that have been maintained as ponderosa pine/pinegrass by periodic underburning (< 50% crown cover) produce 500 to 600 pounds of pinegrass per acre (562-675 kg/ha). In forests where fire has been excluded and grand fir and Douglas-fir have established a subcanopy (> 80% cover), pinegrass production drops to 50 to 100 pounds per acre (56-112 kg/ha)[90]. Wildlife habitat: Historically, fire refugia sites in the grand fir and Douglas-fir-grand fir series were important habitat for late-successional animals such as northern spotted owl and American martin [34,35,36]. Camp and others [35] provide a model for predicting occurrence of fire refugia based on topographic and physiographic variables. FIRE CASE STUDIES
CASE NAME:Natural and artificial regeneration of grand fir after prescribed burning clearcuts on Newman Ridge, western Montana REFERENCES:
Adams, D. F.; Robinson, E.; Malte, P. C.; [and others]. 1981 [1] SEASON/SEVERITY CLASSIFICATION:Spring, summer, and fall 1969/low to moderate [161,20] STUDY LOCATION:Newman Ridge is located between Two Mile and Ward creeks on the Lolo National Forest, western Montana, near the boarder of northeastern Idaho (latitude 47o17' N, longitude 115o17' W) [162,51,161,160]. PREFIRE VEGETATIVE COMMUNITY:
Overstory species composition was: Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca), 34%; western larch (Larix occidentalis), 26%; Rocky Mountain lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta var. latifolia), 17%; Pacific ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa var. ponderosa), 9%; mixed grand and subalpine firs (Abies grandis and A. lasiocarpa), 7%; western white pine (P. monticola), Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii), and western redcedar (Thuja plicata), 7%. [162]. TARGET SPECIES PHENOLOGICAL STATE:Not stated, but grand fir adjacent to the burns would have been in growth and cone-development phase during the summer fires and probably dispersing seed during and after the fall fires. SITE DESCRIPTION:
Elevation at Newman Ridge ranges from 4,400 to 5,400 feet (1,341-1,646
m), with slopes averaging 55% and ranging from 44 to 76%.
Soils belong to the Craddock series and are classified as Andic
Cryochrepts. They have developed in place or in colluvium from
argillites and quartzites of the Belt Formations. There is a 2- to 3-inch- (5-8 cm) thick
surface loess deposit containing ash from the Mt. Mazama and Glacier Peak
volcanic eruptions. Average precipitation is nearly 40 inches (1020 mm), two-thirds of which falls as
snow [51,160]. FIRE DESCRIPTION:
Silvicultural management objectives were site preparation for conifer regeneration, particularly western larch, and fuels reduction [51,160,20].
Mean moisture content of fuels (% oven-dry weight) varied as follows [20]:
Weather variables for the 1969 spring and summer fires follow. Weather variables for the fall fires (28 and 29 September 1970) were not reported [20].
FIRE EFFECTS ON TARGET SPECIES:
Natural postfire grand fir establishment occurred from seed blown in from parent trees adjacent to the burns. In addition to natural seeding, bareroot seedlings were planted on Newman Ridge from 1970 through 1975. Grand fir seedlings continued to establish throughout the 15-year postfire study period. Overall, grand fir seedlings increased from an average frequency of 12% in postfire year 5 (1974) to 18% in postfire year 15 (1984) [160].
Germination of grand fir began soon after snowmelt and was greater on mineral soil than on unburned duff more than 0.5 inch (13 mm) deep. Fungi, rodents, drought, frost heaving, and high soil surface temperatures caused seed and seedling losses. Drought was the leading cause of death on south-facing slopes and 2nd highest on other aspects. From 1969 through 1974 grand fir dispersed 10% of total sound seed rain at Newman Ridge. By 1979 grand fir seedlings made up 17% of all the natural regeneration at Newman Ridge and comprised 29% of well-established (>0.5 foot (15.2 cm) in height) or tall regeneration. Natural grand fir regeneration was best on north-facing slopes; less successful on west- than east-facing slopes; and unsuccessful on south-facing slopes [162]. Similarly, survival of artificial grand fir regeneration was best on north-facing slopes and better on east- than west-facing slopes. Grand fir was not planted on south-facing slopes. Stocking was best the western redcedar/queencup beadlily habitat type. Overall, mean grand fir seedling survival rate was 48%. Natural and artificial grand fir regeneration did not grow as rapidly as most other seedlings; only ponderosa pine seedlings showed similarly slow growth. The tallest grand fir seedlings averaged 1.1 feet (0.4 m), and ranged from 1.9 feet on a west-facing site to 0.7 foot (0.2 m) on a south-facing slope with a dense cover of snowbrush ceanothus (Ceanothus velutinus). The average number of well-established grand fir seedlings in 1979 and 1984, and the range in 1984 on 7 prescribed-burned clearcuts, are given below [51]:
In 1984, the mean number of established (>0.5 foot (15.2 cm) in height) grand fir seedlings on 7 burned clearcuts was [162]:
Quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides) had a negative effect on seedling establishment. Slope steepness did not seem to affect grand fir seedling survival [162]. FIRE MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS:
Seedbed preparation: Summer and early fall fires were most effective at removing duff and exposing mineral soil for regeneration. At Newman Ridge, moderate-severity fires removed most of the duff and prepared mineral soil seedbeds at 8 of the 9 prescribed-burned sites. Duff on 1 relatively wet, north-facing slope did not adequately burn [162]. Abies grandis: References1. Adams, D. F.; Robinson, E.; Malte, P. C.; Koppe, R. K.; Debyle, N. V. 1981. Air quality and smoke management. In: DeByle, Norbert V. Clearcutting and fire in the larch/Douglas-fir forests of western Montana - A multifaceted research summary. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-99. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 19-26. [18630] 2. Agee, James K. 1982. True fir management for wilderness, water, recreation and wildlife values. In: Oliver, Chadwick Dearing; Kenady, Reid M., eds. Proceedings of the biology and management of true fir in the Pacific Northwest symposium; 1981 February 24-26; Seattle-Tacoma, WA. Contribution No. 45. Seattle, WA: University of Washington, College of Forest Resources: 227-237. [6868] 3. Agee, James K. 1996. Fire in the Blue Mountains: a history, ecology, and research agenda. In: Jaindl, R. G.; Quigley, T. M., eds. Search for a solution: sustaining the land, people and economy of the Blue Mountains. Washington, DC: American Forests: 119-145. [28827] 4. Agee, James K. 1996. The influence of forest structure on fire behavior. In: Proceedings, 17th annual forest vegetation management conference; 1996 January 16-18; Redding, CA. Redding, CA:[Publisher unknown]: 52-68. [27641] 5. Agee, James K.; Finney, Mark; de Gouvenain, Roland. 1990. Forest fire history of Desolation Peak, Washington. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 20: 350-356. [11035] 6. Agee, James K.; Maruoka, Kathleen R. 1994. Historical fire regimes of the Blue Mountains. 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Related categories for SPECIES: Abies grandis | Grand Fir
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