Introductory
SPECIES: Casuarina spp. | Australian Pine 



ABBREVIATION : 
CASSPP

SYNONYMS : 
   Casuarina litoria


SCS PLANT CODE : 
   CASUA


COMMON NAMES : 
   Australian pine
   ironwood
   she-oak
   river-oak
   Cunningham casuarina
   horestail casuarina
   longleaf casuarina
   whistling pine


TAXONOMY : 
The currently accepted scientific name for the Australian pine genus
is Casuarina, a member of the family Casuarinaceae [12].  Three species
of Australian pine are common in the United States.  All will be treated
in this report because of their similar status as invader species and
across-the-board management plans to eradicate the genus from the
continent.  These species are [6]:

Casuarina equisetifolia (L.)  synonym: C. litorea (L.)
C. cunninghamiana (Miq.)
C. glauca (Seiber)

These species can hybridize with each other [14].


LIFE FORM : 
Tree

FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS : 
No special status

OTHER STATUS : 
NO-ENTRY


COMPILED BY AND DATE : 
S. A. Snyder, February 1992


LAST REVISED BY AND DATE : 
NO-ENTRY


AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION : 
Snyder, S. A. 1992. Casuarina spp. In: Remainder of Citation

DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
SPECIES: Casuarina spp. | Australian Pine 



GENERAL DISTRIBUTION : 
Australian pine was introduced to the United States near the turn of the
century [14].  It is widely distributed in southern Florida and is also
found in California, Arizona, and Hawaii [12,17].


ECOSYSTEMS : 
   FRES12  Longleaf - slash pine
   FRES13  Loblolly - shortleaf pine
   FRES16  Oak - gum - cypress
   FRES30  Desert shrub
   FRES41  Wet grasslands
   FRES42  Annual grasslands


STATES : 
     AZ  CA  FL  HI  MEXICO


ADMINISTRATIVE UNITS : 
     BICY  EVER


BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS : 
   3  Southern Pacific Border
   7  Lower Basin and Range


KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS : 
   K080  Marl - Everglades
   K091  Cypress savanna
   K092  Everglades


SAF COVER TYPES : 
    70  Longleaf pine
    75  Shortleaf pine
    80  Loblolly pine - shortleaf pine
    81  Loblolly pine
    83  Longleaf pine - slash pine
    84  Slash pine
   111  South Florida slash pine


SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES : 
NO-ENTRY


HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES : 
Australian pine is listed as a component in the following vegetation
types:

Area                 Classification             Authority
Mariana Is,           veg. type                 Falanruw & others 1989
S. Pacific
Palau,                veg. type                 Cole & others 1987
S. Pacific

VALUE AND USE
SPECIES: Casuarina spp. | Australian Pine 



WOOD PRODUCTS VALUE : 
Australian pine wood has many uses, including fuelwood, poles, posts,
beams, oxcart tongues, shingles, paneling, fence rails, furniture,
marine pilings, tool handles, and cabinets [3,12].  The wood, however,
is subject to cracking and splitting [14].


IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE : 
Australian pine poses a serious threat to some wildlife species.  Nest
sites of three endangered species, the American crocodile (Crocodylus
acutus), the loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta ssp. caretta), and the
gopher tortoise (Gopherus polyphemus), are all threatened by Australian
pine invasion [9,10].  Also, this invader creates sterile foraging and
breeding environments for small mammals [3,14].  It does, however,
provide food for migrating goldfinches which feed on Australian pine
seeds [3].


PALATABILITY : 
NO-ENTRY


NUTRITIONAL VALUE : 
Tannins in the leaves of Australian pine are carcinogenic and could be
fatal to foraging cattle, which sometimes eat the leaves [3].


COVER VALUE : 
NO-ENTRY


VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES : 
Australian pine was once used in the United States for reclaiming eroded
areas, but many land managers condemn its use because it threatens
indigenous plants and animals [12].  Some African and Asian countries
use it to combat desertification [17].


OTHER USES AND VALUES : 
Australian pine has various medicinal uses and is also used for dyes, as
an ornamental, and in windbreaks [12].  C. cunninghamiana (the most
cold-hardy) can be planted in citrus groves to protect fruit trees from
cold [14].


MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS : 
Australian pine is extremely fast growing, crowding out many native
plants and creating sterile environments for both plants and animals
[10].  It forms dense roots, which deplete soil moisture and break water
and sewer lines.  It is also susceptible to windthrow during hurricanes
[3].  Cutting often induces sprouting, so it is not an effective control
method.  Chemicals, such as 2,4,5-T, 2,4-D, or Garlon 3A, can be used to
eradicate Australian pine [10,14].

BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
SPECIES: Casuarina spp. | Australian Pine 



GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS : 
Australian pine is a medium to tall evergreen tree.  It has a stout
trunk with rough bark and erect or semispreading main branches and
drooping twigs [12].  Its leaves are jointed and scalelike.  Its fruits
are round and warty with winged seeds.  Trees can be dioecious or
monoecious; male flowers are borne at the tips of twigs, while female
flowers form on nonshedding branches [3,14].  Australian pine fixes
nitrogen with the aid of Frankia spp. fungi.

Characteristics of individual species are as follows:

C. cunninghamiana - 80 feet (25 m) in height, 2 feet (6 m) d.b.h.,
                    dioecious, nonsprouter.
C. equisetifolia - 50 to 100 feet (15-30 m) in height, 1.0 to 1.5 feet
                   (3-5 m) d.b.h., monoecious, nonsprouter.
C. glauca - 40 to 50 feet (10-15 m) in height, 1.5 feet (5 m) d.b.h.,
            dioecious, agressive sprouter, in Florida, usually does not
            produce fruit [12].  


RAUNKIAER LIFE FORM : 
   Phanerophyte


REGENERATION PROCESSES : 
Australian pine regenerates by seed as well as vegetatively through
sprouting [3,12,14].  It is fast growing (5 to 10 feet [1.5-3 m] per
year) [14].  Seeds average 300,000 per pound.  No pregermination
treatment is necessary.  Seeds can remain fertile for a few months to a
year and will germinate in moist and porous soil, sometimes within 4 to
8 days of dispersal [14].


SITE CHARACTERISTICS : 
Because of its nitrogen-fixing capability, Australian pine can colonize
nutrient-poor soils [12].  It can grow in sloughs, sawgrass (Cladium
jamaicensis) glades, wet prairies, saltmarshes, pinelands, along rocky
coasts, on sandbars, dunes, and islands, and in water-logged clay or
brackish tidal areas [3,10,14,17,18].  C. equisetifolia is found only in
south Florida because of its cold intolerance.  It is resistant to salt
spray but not to prolonged flooding.  C. cunninghaminana grows along
freshwater streambanks and is not salt tolerant [3].  It is more
resistant to cold temperatures than C. equisetifolia [12].  C. glauca
grows on steep slopes as well as in intermittently flooded or poorly
drained sites.  It is salt tolerant [3].

Some associates of Australian pine include eucalyptus (Eucalyptus spp.),
melaleuca (Melaleuca quinquenervia), lovegrass (Eragrostis spp.), muhly
grasses (Huhlenbergia spp.), beard grasses (Andropogon spp.), plume
grass (Erianthus giganteus), saltbush (Baccharis halimifolia), wax
myrtle (Myrica cerifera), willow (Salix spp.), sweetbay (Magnolia
virginiana), redbay (Persia borbonia), and coco plum (Chrysobalanus
icaco) [18].  Native associates in the Northern Mariana Islands include
Neisosperma, Barringtonia, Terminalia, Heritiera, Cynometia, and Cordia
[5,6].


SUCCESSIONAL STATUS : 
Australian pine is listed as a dominant species in some South Pacific
island's vegetation types [2,5,6].  It is a warm weather species, not
native to North America.  It can be a primary or secondary colonizer in
disturbed areas of Florida [3,10].


SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT : 
Australian pine can flower and fruit year-round in warm climates [3].
Its peak flowering time is between April and June, and its peak fruiting
time is between September and December.  The minimum seed-bearing age is
4 to 5 years, and it produces a good seed crop annually.  C.
equisetifolia usually flowers and fruits two times a year:  between
February and April, and September and October.  It produces fruit in
June and December.  The fastest growth occurs in the first 7 years with
maximum growth reached in 20 years.  The maximum lifespan of Australian
pine is 40 to 50 years [3].

FIRE ECOLOGY
SPECIES: Casuarina spp. | Australian Pine 



FIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS : 
Australian pine less than 3 inches (8 cm) in diameter can sucker
following fire [3].


POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY : 
   survivor species; on-site surviving root crown or caudex
   off-site colonizer;seed carried by wind; postfire years 1 and 2
   off-site colonizer; seed carried by animals or water; postfire yr 1&2
   secondary colonizer; off-site seed carried to site after year 2

FIRE EFFECTS
SPECIES: Casuarina spp. | Australian Pine 



IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT : 
Trees greater than 3 inches (8 cm) in diameter are killed by fire [3].


DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT : 
A May wildfire killed 60 to 70 percent of Australian pine in Florida
[10].  A smoldering controlled burn in Florida killed 90 percent of the
Australian pines on the study plot [14].  A second attempt in the same
area killed all the Australian pines; trunk diameters were between 5 and
8 inches (13-20 cm).  Another tree, with a d.b.h. of 2 feet (0.66 m),
was killed after charcoal was left to smolder at its base [14].


PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE : 


Trees less than 3 inches (8 cm) in diameter may sprout following fire.
Trees larger than this usually die [3,14].


DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE : 
NO-ENTRY


FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS : 
Periodic fires coupled with the use of herbicides may be an effective
method of controlling Australian pine.  However, too frequent, intense
fires that kill overstory native pines may actually encourage Casuarina
species to establish [18].  Morton [14] warns that burning Australian
pine in peat soils may be hazardous.  Elfer [3] suggests that fire may
be an effective control method for trees greater than 3 inches (8 cm) in
diameter and in dense stands.  Burning could be potentially harmful if
the soil pH is changed such that native species cannot establish [3].

REFERENCES
SPECIES: Casuarina spp. | Australian Pine 



REFERENCES : 

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       others]. 1987. Vegetation survey of the Republic of Palau. Res. Bull.
       PSW-22. Berkeley, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
       Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 13 p.  [16147]

 .  Elfers, Susan C. 1988. Casuarina equisetifolia. Unpublished report
       prepared for The Nature Conservancy on Australian pine. Winter Park, FL:
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       Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research
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 .  Falanruw, Marjorie C.; Maka, Jean E.; Cole, Thomas G.; Whitesell, Craig
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       Caroline, and Marshall Islands. Resource Bulletin PSW-26. Berkeley, CA:
       U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest
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 .  Flores, Eugenia M. 1980. Shoot vascular system and phyllotaxis of
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 .  Garrison, George A.; Bjugstad, Ardell J.; Duncan, Don A.; [and others].
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       Agriculture, Forest Service. 68 p.  [998]

 .  Klukas, Richard W. 1973. Control burn activities in Everglades National
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.  Little, Elbert L., Jr.; Skomen, Roger G. 1989. Common forest trees of
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.  Lyon, L. Jack; Stickney, Peter F. 1976. Early vegetal succession
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       Timbers fire ecology conference and Intermountain Fire Research Council
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.  Morton, Julia F. 1980. The Australian pine or beefwood (Casuarina
       equisetifolia L.), an invasive "weed" tree in Florida. In: Proceedings,
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.  Raunkiaer, C. 1934. The life forms of plants and statistical plant
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Related categories for Species: Casuarina spp. | Australian Pine