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Wildlife, Animals, and Plants
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Introductory
SPECIES: Pinus resinosa | Red Pine
ABBREVIATION :
PINRES
SYNONYMS :
SCS PLANT CODE :
PIRE
COMMON NAMES :
red pine
Norway pine
eastern red pine
TAXONOMY :
The currently accepted scientific name of red pine is Pinus resinosa
Ait. [24]. There are no recognized subspecies, varieties, or forms.
LIFE FORM :
Tree
FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS :
No special status
OTHER STATUS :
NO-ENTRY
COMPILED BY AND DATE :
Jennifer H. Carey, January 1993
LAST REVISED BY AND DATE :
NO-ENTRY
AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION :
Carey, Jennifer H. 1993. Pinus resinosa. In: Remainder of Citation
DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
SPECIES: Pinus resinosa | Red Pine
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION :
Red pine's range extends west Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia; Prince
Edward Island; New Brunswick; southern Quebec; and Maine to central
Ontario and southeast Manitoba; south to southeast Minnesota; and east
to Wisconsin, Michigan, Pennsylvania, and the New England States. It
occurs locally in Newfoundland, eastern West Virginia, and northern
Illinois [24,34]. Red pine has also been planted in a number of states
to which it is not native including South Dakota, Ohio, and Indiana.
ECOSYSTEMS :
FRES10 White - red - jack pine
FRES11 Spruce - fir
FRES15 Oak - hickory
FRES18 Maple - beech - birch
FRES19 Aspen - birch
STATES :
CT IL ME MA MI MN NH NJ NY PA
RI VT WV WI MB NB NF NS ON PE
PQ
ADMINISTRATIVE UNITS :
ACAD ALPO APIS ISRO JOFL MORR
PIRO SARA SHEN SLBE VOYA
BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS :
NO-ENTRY
KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS :
K093 Great Lakes spruce - fir forest
K095 Great Lakes pine forest
K100 Oak - hickory forest
K104 Appalachian oak forest
K107 Northern hardwoods - fir forest
K108 Northern hardwoods - spruce forest
SAF COVER TYPES :
1 Jack pine
5 Balsam fir
14 Northern pin oak
15 Red pine
16 Aspen
18 Paper birch
21 Eastern white pine
32 Red spruce
44 Chestnut oak
108 Red maple
SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES :
NO-ENTRY
HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES :
Red pine is often codominant with white pine (Pinus strobus) and/or jack
pine (P. banksiana). Red pine often forms open stands and, prior to
logging and settlement, was the prominent woody species in the pine
barrens of Wisconsin [7,43].
The following published classifications list red pine as dominant or
codominant.
The vegetation of Wisconsin [7]
Principal plant associations of the Saint Lawrence Valley [8]
Plant communities of Voyageurs National Park, Minnesota, U.S.A. [21]
Virgin plant communities of the Boundary Waters Canoe Area [30]
VALUE AND USE
SPECIES: Pinus resinosa | Red Pine
WOOD PRODUCTS VALUE :
Red pine wood is moderately hard and straight grained. It is used
primarily for structural timber and pulpwood. Red pine is also suitable
for poles, piling, mining timbers, and railroad ties because it is
easily penetrated by preservatives [14,34].
IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE :
Stands of red pine provide cover, nesting sites, and food for many
species of birds and mammals. If preferred food is lacking,
white-tailed deer, snowshoe hares, and cottontails will browse seedlings
[34]. Moose show moderate preference for red pine browse in the winter
when other browse is dormant [1]. Bald eagles typically build nests
below the top of the crown in living red pine [26].
PALATABILITY :
NO-ENTRY
NUTRITIONAL VALUE :
NO-ENTRY
COVER VALUE :
NO-ENTRY
VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES :
Red pine performs well on a variety of mine spoils, especially in the
northern Appalachian Mountain region. It has a lower pH limit of 4.0 to
4.5 [42]. In Ohio, red pine is recommended for planting on drier upper
slopes as well as moister, better drained lower slopes on all sandy and
loamy mine spoils and on clay spoils that have a high proportion of
stone [26].
OTHER USES AND VALUES :
Red pine is planted in narrow strips on sandy farmland to reduce wind
erosion of soil. It is also planted for Christmas trees [34].
MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
Red pine is one of the most extensively planted forest species in the
northern United States. However, there has been a decline in natural
red pine stands because the extensive harvesting and slash burning that
occurred after the turn of the century left no seed trees [13]. The
shelterwood silviculture system and clearcutting followed by direct
seeding or planting are recommended for the harvest and regeneration of
red pine [2,41].
Several sawflies (Neodiprion spp., Diprion spp., and Acantholyda spp.)
defoliate red pine and may kill seedlings. Other insects that damage
red pine include Saratoga spittlebug (Aphrophora saratogensis),
Zimmerman pine moth (Dioryctria zimmermani), red pine shoot moth (D.
resinosella), red pine scale (Matsucoccus resinosae), European pine
shoot moth (Rhyacionia buoliana), and Allegheny mound ant (Formica
exsectoides) [34]. Red pine cone beetle (Conophthora resinosae), red
pine cone moth (Eucosma monitorana), and red pine coneworm (Dioryctria
disclusa) destroy whole cones and reduce seed production [29]. Some of
these cone predators may be controlled by fire (See Fire Management).
Red pine decline, an expanding circular area of dead and dying red pine,
affects 20- to 40-year-old pine. The fungi Leptographium procerum and
L. terebrantis have been isolated from roots of declining trees, but not
from completely healthy stands. The Leptographium spp. are thought to
gain access to the root system and spread by root-to-root contact.
Stressed trees then succumb to insect attack by root collar weevil
(Hylobius radicis), red turpentine beetle (Dendroctonus valens), and
pine engraver (Ips pini) [17].
Beaked hazel and American hazel (Corylus cornuta and C. americana),
aspen (Populus spp.), and mountain maple (Acer spicatum) often compete
with red pine seedlings. A picloram/2,4-D mixture (Tordan 101) was
tested for control of these species but caused considerable mortality of
red pine seedlings [31].
BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
SPECIES: Pinus resinosa | Red Pine
GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS :
Red pine is a native, evergreen, coniferous tree with 4- to
6.5-inch-long (10.2-16.5 cm) needles and thick bark. In closed stands,
red pine has a straight, limbless bole for almost three-fourths of its
length and an oval crown. In open stands, branches are retained for
almost the full length of the tree and are horizontally spreading or
somewhat drooping. Red pine usually attains a height of 70 to 80 feet
(21-24 m) and a d.b.h. of 36 inches (91 cm), but on good sites, it
occasionally reaches a maximum size of almost 150 feet (46 m) in height
and 60 inches (152 cm) in d.b.h. [14,34]. Red pine lives to be almost
400 years old [13,34].
Red pine is very windfirm. Seedlings develop taproots 6 to 18 inches
(15-46 cm) long in the first growing season. Older trees develop a
widespreading and moderately deep root system. If unhindered by
competition, the longest lateral roots may extend 40 feet (12.2 m)
beyond the crown radius. Vertical roots may penetrate 5 to 15 feet
(1.5-4.6 m) [34].
RAUNKIAER LIFE FORM :
Phanerophyte
REGENERATION PROCESSES :
The minimum seed-bearing age of trees in open stands is 15 to 25 years
and in closed stands is 50 to 60 years. Seed production is best in
trees 50 to 150 years of age. Large seed crops occur once every 3 to 7
years with light crops in intervening years. The winged seeds are
lightweight and disseminated by wind. The effective dispersal range, as
measured by established seedlings, averages 40 feet (12 m) from the
source tree, but seeds may be carried up to 900 feet (275 m) [34].
Seedlings become established on mineral soil exposed by fire (see Fire
Effects for more information on regeneration). Seeds germinate, but
seedlings do not establish beneath dense brush, on heavy litter or sod,
or on a recent burn with a heavy cover of ash. The best conditions for
establishment are a fine sand seedbed, thin moss or litter, partial
shade, abundant precipitation, and a water table within 4 feet (1.2 m)
of the soil surface [34]. Seedling establishment is satisfactory in 35
percent of full sunlight but is uncertain in levels of light less than
17 percent. Seedling height growth increases with increasing light up
to 63 percent of full sunlight [35].
After one growing season, seedling height is often less than 1 inch (3
cm) and the growth continues to be slow for 4 to 5 years. It usually
takes 4 to 10 years for red pine to reach 4.5 feet (1.37 m).
Thereafter, height growth may average 1 foot (0.3 m) per year in the
Lake States and Ontario and 1.5 feet (0.5 m) per year in the
northeastern United States [34].
Red pine does not reproduce asexually.
SITE CHARACTERISTICS :
Red pine occurs on outwash plains, level or gently rolling sand plains,
and low ridges adjacent to lakes and swamps. It also occurs on mountain
slopes and hilltops, up to 2,700 feet (820 m) in the Adirondack
Mountains and 4,200 feet (1290 m) in the Appalachian Mountains in West
Virginia [34]. Red pine often grows on very exposed sites including
islands, peninsulas, east shores of lakes, and steep slopes. It
withstands dehydrating winter winds better than its tree associates
[20].
Red pine commonly grows in dry sandy, acidic, infertile soils, primarily
glaciofluvial or eolian in origin [34], but it can grow in all types of
soils, provided they are well drained [20]. Red pine grows especially
well in naturally subirrigated soils (the watertable 4 to 9 feet
[1.2-2.7 m] below the surface) with well-aerated surface layers [34].
Most tree associates of red pine, with the exception of jack pine, white
pine, and aspen, grow as understory. Common tree associates on coarse,
dry soils include quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides), bigtooth aspen
(P. grandidentata), and bear oak (Quercus ilicifolia). On fine sands to
loamy sands, associates also include oak (Quercus spp.), black cherry
(Prunus serotina), and black spruce (Picea mariana). On sandy loam to
loam soils, associates include sugar maple (Acer saccharum), American
basswood (Tilia americana), yellow birch (Betula alleghaniensis),
American beech (Fagus grandifolia), eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis),
white spruce (Picea glauca), white ash (Fraxinus americana), northern
white-cedar (Thuja occidentalis), and eastern hophornbean (Ostrya
virginiana) [34].
Many understory shrub associates of red pine are shade intolerant but
can persist in open red pine stands. Shrub associates include
blueberries (Vaccinium spp.), trailing arbutus (Epigaea repens),
sweetfern (Comptonia peregrina), bearberry (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi),
prairie willow (Salix humilis), American hazel, beaked hazel, striped
maple (Acer pensylvanicum), dwarf bush-honeysuckle (Diervilla lonicera),
New Jersey tea (Ceanothus americanus), sand cherry (Prunus pumila and P.
susquehanae), American fly honeysuckle (Lonicera canadensis),
serviceberries (Amelanchier spp.), raspberries (Rubus spp.), and spireas
(Spireas spp.) [34].
SUCCESSIONAL STATUS :
Facultative Seral Species
Red pine is shade intolerant. It rates 2.4 in tolerance on a scale of 0
to 10, compared with aspens which rate 0.7 and eastern hemlock which
rates 10. Of its associates, only jack pine, aspens, paper birch
(Betula papyrifera), and gray birch (B. populifolia) are less shade
tolerant [34]. Red pine succeeds these shorter lived, less tolerant
associates and is, in turn, succeeded by more shade-tolerant associates
including white pine, white spruce, and balsam fir (Abies balsamea)
[11].
On coarse, infertile sands, red pine may be a long-persisting subclimax
species [11]. Natural red pine stands are commonly very open, and red
pine reproduces in some of these parklike stands. In extremely
windswept areas red pine may persist indefinitely because few other
species can survive on these sites [20].
SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT :
Cones develop over two growing seasons. After development begins in
midsummer, cones become dormant until the following spring. Pollination
occurs in late May or early June, and cones continue to grow until late
summer. Fertilization occurs the following summer, approximately 13
months after pollination. Cones ripen in early autumn and seeds are
dispersed in October and November. Germination occurs the following
spring or early summer [18,34].
FIRE ECOLOGY
SPECIES: Pinus resinosa | Red Pine
FIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS :
Red pine is fire resistant. Mature trees survive fire because they have
thick bark, branch-free boles, a moderately deep rooting habit, and
often occur in moderately open stands [4]. Fire is necessary for red
pine regeneration because it prepares a seedbed, opens up the canopy by
killing some trees, and reduces brush and understory species which shade
out and compete with seedlings [40].
Saplings are killed by moderate-severity fires, and young stands are
highly flammable because the crowns are still near the ground [40].
Once the canopy closes, lower branches die, and a large gap develops
between the ground and the crown [33]. On good sites, red pine boles
are fairly free of fire hazardous branch material well above 15 feet
(4.6 m) by age 30. On poor to medium sites, boles are free up to 7 feet
(2.1 m) by age 30 [22]. Because trees do not bear seed until 15 to 25
years of age at the earliest, a fire-free interval of at least 20 to 40
years is required for red pine recruitment [6].
The natural fire regime in red pine forests is characterized by
alternating stand-replacing fires and nonlethal fires. Low- and
moderate-severity fires occur at 20- to 40-year intervals, and
high-severity fires at 150- to 200-year intervals. Most
moderate-severity fires do not kill canopy trees. The high-severity
fires kill trees and thus create openings in the stand, ideal for red
pine recruitment [3]. Because the fire frequency within red pine's
native range has changed as the climate has changed [6], it appears that
red pine is fairly resilient to changes in fire frequencies [44].
However, complete absence of fire will eventually eliminate red pine, as
will frequent, stand-replacing fires [13].
The fire regime of the boreal forest at the northern edge of red pine's
native range is characterized by crown fires and high-severity surface
fires. Red pine is resticted to lake landscapes or rough topography at
its northern limits because these natural fire breaks permit some mature
trees to survive [3].
The typical fuel type under red pine stands is an organic layer 2 to 4
inches (5-10 cm) deep, a continuous needle layer, a moderate herb and
shrub layer, and a moderately dense understory. Ground fires spread
slowly. Dry windy conditions are required for fires to crown and have a
high rate of spread [16].
Red pine litter is less compact and less dense than jack pine litter
because of its long and curved needles. Thus, the drying rate and
potential combustion rate of red pine needles is higher than that of
jack pine [5]. Needle litter accumulates under a red pine stand at an
increasing rate until shortly after closure of the crowns. Accumulation
then levels off at 11,000 to 16,000 pounds per acre (12.3-17.9 t/ha),
with more on good sites [22].
POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY :
Tree without adventitious-bud root crown
Initial-offsite colonizer (off-site, initial community)
Secondary colonizer - on-site seed
Secondary colonizer - off-site seed
FIRE EFFECTS
SPECIES: Pinus resinosa | Red Pine
IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT :
Thick bark allows mature red pine (50 years old or 50 feet tall) to
survive relatively intense surface fires. Red pine are killed by crown
fires or by surface fires that result in considerable crown scorch [33].
Moderate-intensity surface fires (<200 Btu/s/ft [<692 kW/m]) do not
scorch the crowns of mature red pine. A large red pine may survive a
surface fire intensity of 500 Btu/s/ft (1,730 kW/m), but this intensity
is probably the highest red pine can withstand [40]. In a study in New
England, many red pines less than 4 inches (10 cm) survived their first
surface fire [10].
Two stands, in which 96 percent of the red and white pines were 9 inches
(23 cm) in diameter or larger, were prescribed burned in late spring
(May 31 and June 15). The percent crown scorch was estimated after the
fire, and 1 year later mortality was assessed. There was no mortality
in trees with less than 46 percent crown scorch. Mortality was 50
percent in the 81 to 85 percent crown scorch class and 100 percent in
trees with more than 96 percent crown scorch [27].
An April surface fire in a 47-year-old red pine plantation in Minnesota
resulted in less mortality than the abovementioned study. The red pine
were 50 to 60 feet (15.2-18.3 m) tall, and most trees were between 6 and
11 inches (15-28 cm) in d.b.h. One and a half years after the fire,
mortality was 40 percent in the 95 to 100 percent crown scorch class, 14
percent in the 75 to 95 percent crown scorch class, and 8 percent or
less in those pines with less than 75 percent crown scorch. The fire
took place while the new shoots were still in the terminal buds.
Mortality would probably have been higher if the fire had occurred after
the buds had opened but before the next year's buds had formed [36].
A laboratory study in August, in which red pine seedlings were exposed
to different temperature regimes for 4 minutes, demonstrated even less
mortality with high percentages of needle scorch. The seedlings
withstood up to 90 percent needle scorch with only 10 to 20 percent
mortality. The author suggests that there may be two lethal
temperatures, one that kills needles and one that kills terminal buds.
Therefore, percent needle scorch may not be directly related to
mortality in red pine [27].
A completely developed seed may survive in a cone in the crown after a
surface fire that completely killed the crown foliage, but an
undeveloped seed is unlikely to complete its development under these
conditions [40].
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT :
In natural red pine stands, crown fires are rare because stands are
open. However, dense plantation stands up to 50 feet (15.2 m) tall are
at high risk of intense crown fire. Red pine is highly flammable and
crown fires can reach intensities up to 6,500 BTU/s/ft (22,500 kW/m) [40].
PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE :
Fire provides red pine with conditions necessary for regeneration,
specifically a bare or lightly covered mineral seedbed free of brushy
competition and an open canopy. A summer surface fire averaging 200 to
500 Btu/s/ft (692-1,730 kW/m) with small scale variations in intensity
to ensure the survival of some seed trees is ideal for regeneration
[40]. However, not all canopy-opening fires result in red pine
recruitment because good seed crops are infrequent [10]. Red pine
establishment is sometimes delayed for up to 10 years after a fire [3].
In one study, seedling counts at postfire year 1 correlated positively
with fire severity, exposure of mineral soil, and reduction of shrub
weight per acre [39].
A thick organic layer is an unfavorable seedbed because germinants are
farther from a constant water supply and the mineral soil. The higher
the fire severity, the more organic material is removed. However, fire
also consumes seeds and rhizomes and thus reduces the early postfire
herbaceous cover which serves to shelter the young seedlings from heat.
Initially, as the amount of postfire shelter is reduced by increasing
fire severity, red pine survival decreases. Eventually, however, the
reduction in organic matter depth is sufficient to compensate for the
lack of shelter, and the survival of red pine increases. Establishment
is highest when mineral soil is exposed [37].
A study of slash pine (Pinus elliottii) showed that if the crown is
partially scorched, a loss in growth can be expected, possibly as much
as 1 year's growth in the first 2 postfire years. The author believes
these results are applicable to red pine [15].
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE :
NO-ENTRY
FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
Prescribed fire is used for red pine site preparation. In the
shelterwood system, two fires conducted in consecutive years are
recommended before the first partial cut. A fire conducted after the
partial cut may be too hot because of slash and may cause mortality of
the remaining trees. The first fire should be in the spring before
understory leaves emerge so that the fire will be hot enough to remove
most of the soil surface organic material [41]. Sufficient duff is
removed only when the moisture content is less than or equal to 60
percent [40]. A second fire after the leaves emerge helps reduce
competition. A suggested reasonable fire intensity for preparing a
seedbed and controlling competition is 116 to 173 Btu/s/ft (400-600
kW/m) [41]. Van Wagner [40] states that 200 Btu/s/ft (692 kW/m) is the
upper limit of intensity to avoid crown scorch in 70- to 80-foot (21-24
m) red pine. This intensity is lower than is ideal for natural
regeneration because trees do not need to be killed to open up the
canopy in a shelterwood system.
Two consecutive annual fires in a 90-year-old red and white pine stand
in Ontario improved the initial conditions necessary for pine
regeneration. The fires were low in intensity (22 to 23 Btu/s/ft [78-79
kW/m]) and did not harm the overstory. The litter layer was consumed
and the understory was changed from one dominated by balsam fir saplings
to one dominated by herbaceous species. However, the understory will
revert back to prefire conditions unless some of the canopy is removed
in a shelterwood cut [28].
The red pine cone beetle, and possibly the red pine cone moth, can be
controlled by prescribed fire. Adults overwinter on the forest floor
and are vulnerable to low-severity ground fires from late October to
early May. Because the decrease in the red pine cone beetle might
result in an increase in other pests, such as the red pine coneworm, the
prescribed burning treatment should be limited to years with heavy cone
production [29].
Equations have been developed to predict the forest floor fuel weight
and the litter weight in red pine stands from the basal area [9].
REFERENCES
SPECIES: Pinus resinosa | Red Pine
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Index
Related categories for Species: Pinus resinosa
| Red Pine
|
 |
