Introductory
SPECIES: Pinus rigida | Pitch Pine 



ABBREVIATION : 
PINRIG

SYNONYMS : 
NO-ENTRY


SCS PLANT CODE : 
   PIRI


COMMON NAMES : 
   pitch pine
   hard pine
   bull pine


TAXONOMY : 
The currently accepted scientific name of pitch pine is Pinus rigida
Mill. [22,25].  There are no recognized varieties or subspecies.  Pitch
pine hybridizes with P. serotina in southern New Jersey, Delaware,
Maryland, and Virginia; with loblolly pine (P. taeda) in Delaware; and
with shortleaf pine (P. echinata) and Table Mountain pine (P. pungens)
in the southern Appalachian Mountains and Piedmont region.


LIFE FORM : 
Tree

FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS : 
No special status

OTHER STATUS : 
NO-ENTRY


COMPILED BY AND DATE : 
Jennifer H. Carey, March 1992


LAST REVISED BY AND DATE : 
NO-ENTRY


AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION : 
Carey, Jennifer H. 1992. Pinus rigida. In: Remainder of Citation

DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
SPECIES: Pinus rigida | Pitch Pine 



GENERAL DISTRIBUTION : 
Pitch pine has a wide geographical range in the northeastern United
States and the Appalachian Mountain region.  Pitch pine is most common
in the New Jersey Pine Barrens and Cape Cod, but ranges from central
Maine to western Kentucky and Ohio and south to the mountains of
northern Georgia.  Outlying stands are found in southern Quebec and
southeast Ontario [19,22,25].


ECOSYSTEMS : 
   FRES10  White - red - jack pine
   FRES13  Loblolly - shortleaf pine
   FRES14  Oak - pine
   FRES15  Oak - hickory
   FRES16  Oak - gum - cypress


STATES : 
     CT  DE  GA  KY  ME  MD  MA  NH  NJ  NY
     NC  OH  PA  RI  SC  TN  VT  VA  WV  ON
     PQ


ADMINISTRATIVE UNITS : 
     ACAD  ALPO  ASIS  BISO  BLRI  CACO
     CATO  CUGA  DEWA  FIIS  GATE  GRSM
     GWMP  MORR  NERI  SARA  SHEN


BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS : 
NO-ENTRY


KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS : 
   K104  Appalachian pine forest
   K110  Northeastern pine - oak forest
   K111  Oak - hickory - pine forest
   K113  Southern floodplain forest


SAF COVER TYPES : 
   21  Eastern white pine
   43  Bear oak
   44  Chestnut oak
   45  Pitch pine
   51  White pine - chestnut oak
   52  White oak - black oak - northern red oak
   75  Shortleaf pine
   78  Virginia pine - oak
   79  Virginia pine
   97  Atlantic white-cedar


SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES : 
NO-ENTRY


HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES : 
NO-ENTRY

VALUE AND USE
SPECIES: Pinus rigida | Pitch Pine 



WOOD PRODUCTS VALUE : 
Pitch pine is not a productive timber tree when compared to other
eastern conifers, but it may be the most productive tree on unfavorable
sites [32].  Fully stocked even-aged stands can yield 15,000 to 25,000
board feet per acre (210-350 cubic m/ha) [25].  The vigorous sprouting
of pitch pine is a liability with regards to wood production because
trees often have multiple, crooked trunks and flat tops.  Pitch pine is
used for rough construction, pulp, crating, and fuel.  In the past,
pitch pine was used for ship building, mine timbers, and railroad ties
because the wood contains large amounts of resin and resists decay [25].


IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE : 
Pitch pine seeds are important food for mice, squirrels, quail, and
small birds.  In areas where deer populations are high, white-tailed
deer commonly feed on pitch pine needles [34].  Cottontail rabbits
browse pitch pine seedlings.


PALATABILITY : 
NO-ENTRY


NUTRITIONAL VALUE : 
NO-ENTRY


COVER VALUE : 
NO-ENTRY


VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES : 
Pitch pine is able to thrive on both dry and wet sites and has good
potential for revegetation.  A pitch pine-loblolly pine hybrid has
proven useful for reforestation in Korea [22].  However, on reclaimed
strip-mines, survival of planted pitch pine seedlings was only 32
percent after 6 years and 7 percent after 28 years [8,22,39].


OTHER USES AND VALUES : 
NO-ENTRY


MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS : 
Pitch pine is best regenerated under even-aged silviculture.
Traditional timber management strategies include control of competing
hardwoods and seedbed preparation.  Pitch pine self-prunes in closed
stands not damaged by fire.  Pitch pine sprouts initially grow slower
than oak sprouts; therefore, fire or broadleaf herbicides may be
necessary to suppress the oak [22,25,28].  Mixed pine-hardwood forests
can provide better wildlife habitat, and timber quality and quantity
than either pure pine or pure hardwood types.  Therefore, depending on
management goals pitch pine may be best managed in a mixed forest
environment [43].

Many insects, including the pitch pine looper (Lambdina athasaria
pellucidaria), attack pitch pine and periodically cause damage.  Several
fungi also attack pitch pine, but rarely cause serious damage [25].

Acid rain and air pollution may be contributing to a decline in growth
of pitch pine [18,30,36].  Cores taken from pitch pine in the New Jersey
Pine Barrens show a decrease in growth over the past 25 years.  A
statistical relationship exists between stream pH and growth rates, but
a definite link cannot be made [18].  Acid solutions administered to
seedlings resulted in inhibited root growth due to aluminum toxicity, but top
growth increased owing to increased availability of nutrients [36].  

Pitch pines growing in coastal areas are stressed by salt spray during
major storms as evidenced by needle loss and color change [34].

BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
SPECIES: Pinus rigida | Pitch Pine 



GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS : 
Pitch pine is a small to medium-sized native, evergreen conifer with
stiff, wide-spreading needles and platy bark.  A mature tree ranges from
20 to 100 feet (6-30 m), but seldom exceeds 79 feet (24 m) in height and
23 inches (60 cm) in diameter [19,25].  Pitch pines often have multiple
trunks, stubby branches, clusters of needle bundles growing on the
trunks, and flat tops [9].  A pitch pine that grows from a seedling and
has not been subject to fire can have good form.  The species has a deep
taproot and abundant lateral roots that can live and grow beneath the
water table [22,25].

In the Pine Plains of the New Jersey Pine Barrens, pitch pine is dwarfed
and rarely exceeds 10 feet (3 m) in height.  Frequent fires and
competition for limited nutrients are the primary cause of the low
stature, but genetic differences have also been found between the
dwarfed and nondrawfed forms [4,7,24].


RAUNKIAER LIFE FORM : 
   Phanerophyte


REGENERATION PROCESSES : 
Sexual:  Open-grown trees generally begin producing mature cones at 8 to
12 years of age, but open-grown sprouts can bear mature cones after only
3 years.  A mature cone is 4 to 7 inches (10-18 cm) long and, on
average, has 74 seeds of which 73 percent are viable.  Good seed crops
occur at intervals of 4 to 9 years [22,25].  Good and Good [14] compared
reproduction between the New Jersey Pine Plains dwarfed population and
the nondwarfed Pine Barren population. They found that dwarfed pitch
pine reproduces earlier, has a higher percentage of female cones, and
has more cones overall than does nondwarfed pitch pine.

Seed dissemination:  Pitch pine is a polymorphic species; individuals
have either serotinous or nonserotinous cones, but not both [13].
Nonserotinous cones open soon after maturity; the seeds are dispersed by
wind, and although equipped with large wings, are not carried far
[22,25].

Seedling development:  Pitch pine seeds require mineral soil for
germination.  Thick litter impedes epigeal germination because the seeds
are small and are not capable of growing a large taproot without mineral
soil nourishment.  Seeds are viable on the forest floor for up to 1
year.  Seed viability decreases with increasing age of serotinous cones.
Seedlings grow slowly during the first 5 years and then more rapidly.
Seedlings younger than 2 years old are susceptible to drought.  Many
seedlings develop basal stem crooks to protect dormant buds [22].

Roots:  The taproot grows fast in the first 8 to 10 years to a maximum
depth of 8 feet (2.5 m), with lateral roots becoming more important in
later development.  Mycorrhizae are a common feature of pitch pine roots
[4,32].

Vegetative reproduction:  Pitch pine can reproduce by vigorous sprouting
from dormant buds along the bole of the tree.  This species is unusual
in that dormant buds can also sprout from the base of the tree if the
tree is top-killed or cut down [25].  While dormant buds continue to
sprout, the sprout growth rate slows once the root crown reaches 20
years of age [28].


SITE CHARACTERISTICS : 
In southern New England, pitch pine grows at sea level and in river
valleys.  In the southern Appalachian Mountains, it is found at
elevations between 980 and 5,500 feet (300-1,700 m) [9,25].  Many
overstory species grow with pitch pine because of its wide range of
latitude and sites.  In addition to those species mentioned in
Distribution and Occurrence, overstory associates include Table Mountain
pine, eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis), blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica),
red maple (Acer rubrum), gray birch (Betula populifolia), various
hickories (Carya spp.), and various oaks (Quercus spp.) [25].  Areas
where pitch pine is dominant and associated with oaks are termed pine
barrens and are scattered but common in the northeastern United States
[22,37].

Common understory associates of pitch pine on upland sites are lowland
blueberries (Vaccinium pallidum or V. angustifolium) and black
huckleberry and dangleberry (Gaylussacia baccata and G. frondosa).  A
variety of shrubs are common in lowland sites.  Where wildfire is
frequent, bear oak (Q. ilicifolia) and dwarf chinkapin oak (Q.
prinoides) are common understory associates [10,22,25].

Pitch pine usually grows in infertile, sandy or gravelly soils.  The
soils are typically acidic with leached A2 horizons [22].  The main soil
types are Entisols, Ultisols, Spodosols, and Alfisols.  In New England,
the pitch pine grows in sandy outwash plains, and in the southern
Appalachian Mountains it grows on steep slopes and ridges, often in
narrow bands, where soils are shallow [22,25,40,42].

Pitch pine can grow in a wide range of moisture conditions from
well-drained dry slopes to swamps, but it grows best on moist sandy loam
soil [9,25].  Because of root tolerance of water, seedlings can grow
where the water table is only 8 inches (20.5 cm) below the surface in
well-drained soils [32,42].


SUCCESSIONAL STATUS : 
Pitch pine, intolerant of shade and competition, is an invader species
and regenerates well after disturbances.  Frequent fires and poor soil
conditions allow subclimax pitch pine to remain the dominant species.
In the absence of fire, eastern white pine (Pinus strobus) and eastern
hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) supplant pitch pine in its northern range and
numerous hardwoods (usually oaks and hickories) supplant it in the
southern mountains [42].



SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT : 
Staminate flowers are visible by the third week in April and pistillate
flowers by May 1.  The pollen is usually shed the second or third week
in May, but the timing is variable.  Cones mature 16 to 18 months after
pollination.  Nonserotinous cones release seeds from November to April,
with most seeds released in the first 2 months after the cone has opened
[22,25].

FIRE ECOLOGY
SPECIES: Pinus rigida | Pitch Pine 



FIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS : 
Pitch pine is considered fire resilient [31].  Pitch pine has thick
bark, rapidly growing sprouts, extensive root systems, and is capable of
basal sprouting [5,6,21,23].  Mature trees have a low to moderate
tolerance of fire, but a high rate of regeneration after fire [21].  The
thick bark protects dormant buds in the bole.  If the crown is destroyed
by fire, these buds will sprout from the trunk and the base of the tree.
Buds at the base of the tree can still sprout after the tree is 60 years
old or more.  Seedlings can also survive fire because of a basal crook
in the stem which brings the lowermost buds against the mineral soil.
The soil insulates the buds from the heat of the fire [25].

Pitch pine produces viable seeds at an early age which allows the
species to withstand frequent fires.  In individuals with serotinous
cones, seeds are stored on site in the crowns until fire melts the resin
and the cones open [23,25].

The natural fire frequency of most pitch pine habitat is 12 to 25 years
[17].  In the Pine Plains of New Jersey, fire frequency is 6 to 8 years.
Nearly all dwarfed individuals in the Pine Plains have serotinous cones
and basal stem crooks.  It is thought that selection is responsible for
the preponderance of these fire adaptations in this region [3,4,13,24].
Root crown sprouting is the dominant reproductive process in the Pine
Plains; seedlings are rare [5].


POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY : 
   survivor species; on-site surviving root crown 
   off-site colonizer; seed carried by wind; postfire years 1 and 2
   crown-stored residual colonizer; long-viability seed in on-site cones
   crown-stored residual colonizer; short-viability seed in on-site cones

FIRE EFFECTS
SPECIES: Pinus rigida | Pitch Pine 



IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT : 
Pitch pine is flammable and easily top-killed by fire [21].  Seedlings
up to 5 feet (1.5 m) in height will almost always be top-killed.  A hot
fire during a dry season can kill an individual, but following most
fires, dormant buds will sprout even if most of the tree is destroyed
[1,21].  Crown fires are the prevailing fire type in the Pine Plains and
result in high stem mortality [41]

Pitch pine needles were killed instantly when immersed in 147 degree F
(64 degree C) water, but withstood immersion in 136 degree F (58 degree
C) water for 1.5 minutes.  The study showed that pitch pine needles are
more tolerant of heat than the needles of other eastern pine species
(Pinus palustris, P. echinata, and P. taeda) [1].



DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT : 
NO-ENTRY


PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE : 
If fire exposes the mineral soil necessary for pitch pine regeneration,
seeds released from serotinous cones will germinate and seedlings will
establish during the first postfire growing season [22].  Established
trees will sprout vigorously from dormant buds along the bole following
fire.  Sprout production will continue at a relatively high but
declining rate for 15 years after the fire [5].  Little or no needle
scorch will result in no growth loss in pitch pine [21].

Seedlings that are top-killed will also sprout.  Seventy percent of
shade-grown seedlings sprouted after a prescribed burn if they were
vigorous and had well-developed basal crooks or were greater than 3/16
inch (0.5 cm) in diameter at the root collar [27].



DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE : 
No seedlings were observed 1 year after a fire in the Pine Plains of New
Jersey.  Buchholz [3] attributed the lack of seedlings to the high seed
predation by eastern towhees and the prolific postfire sprouting that
characterizes the dwarfed pitch pines of this region.  The mean stem
density of the Pine Plains is 10,100 stems per acre (24,900 stems/ha).
Saplings and seedlings account for less than 1 percent of the stems [5].
The abundant sprout production results in a high wood surface area and
may contribute to the development and maintenance of the dwarfed
stature, and high fire frequency and intensity characteristic of these
Pine Plains communities [3].

Low-intensity surface fires selectively kill basal sprouts over larger
canopy stems.  Canopy stems continue to grow and discourage basal
sprouts from becoming established in the canopy and thus result in a
lower canopy stem density [41].


FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS : 
Prescribed fire is an important management tool in eastern upland pitch
pine forests.  Pitch pine is fire dependent and most of its successional
competitors are not [15,21].  Recommendations for prescribed fire
intervals vary.  Based on bark thickness and its ability to protect the
tree from low-intensity fires, Harmon [16] suggests the fire interval be
no less than 15 years to have 50 percent survival of pitch pine as the
dominant crown class.  To suppress hardwoods, Little and Moore [26]
recommend burning at 5-year intervals after pines are old enough to
resist fire injury.  Prescibed fires are risky if stands are less than
12 feet (3.7 m) tall [27].  Short fire intervals kill sprouts, but allow
saplings to survive [7].  Barden and Woods [1] suggest that only a crown
fire will encourage pine reproduction and discontinue hardwood
succession.  A crown-burning program at 5- to 20-year intervals in
restricted areas is recommended for maintaining the unique Pine Plains
ecosystem [41].

In the early part of the twentieth century, fire frequency in the New
Jersey Pine Barrens was 20 years; today it is 65 years.  The decrease in
fire frequency has resulted in a loss of fire-adapted species and
continued fire suppression will probably result in complete changes from
mixed pine-hardwood forests to closed canopy hardwood forests
[11,33,37].  Frequent burns favor pine over oak, but the occasional
prescribed winter burn actually may accelerate succession toward oak
dominance.  A winter prescibed burn in the Pine Barrens of New Jersey
stimulated growth in oaks (Quercus alba and Q. prinus) more than in
pitch pine and did not improve soil fertility [2].

REFERENCES
SPECIES: Pinus rigida | Pitch Pine 



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Related categories for Species: Pinus rigida | Pitch Pine