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Wildlife, Animals, and Plants
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Introductory
SPECIES: Pinus washoensis | Washoe Pine
ABBREVIATION :
PINWAS
SYNONYMS :
NO-ENTRY
SCS PLANT CODE :
PIWA
COMMON NAMES :
Washoe pine
yellow pine
TAXONOMY :
The currently accepted scientific name of Washoe pine is Pinus
washoensis Mason and Stockw. [3,8,9]. There are no recognized
subspecies, varieties, or forms.
Washoe pine origins are uncertain. Haller [29] proposed that Washoe
pine resulted from hybridization between either Pacific ponderosa pine
(P. ponderosa var. ponderosa) and Jeffrey pine (P. jeffreyi) or Pacific
ponderosa pine and Rocky Mountain ponderosa pine (P. ponderosa var.
scopulorum). Mirov [30] dismissed Jeffrey pine as a possible ancestor
on chemical and morphological grounds, suggesting that Washoe pine is a
variety or mutant of ponderosa pine. Critchfield [4] stated that Washoe
pine is a Pleistocene derivative of Rocky Mountain ponderosa pine.
Washoe pine sets more sound seed per cone in artificial crosses with
Rocky Mountain ponderosa pine than in natural intraspecific crosses.
This rare instance of heterosis for seed set in interspecific conifer
hybrids establishes a strong and direct evolutionary relationship
between Washoe pine and the Rocky Mountain ponderosa pine [17].
Washoe pine hybridizes with Pacific ponderosa pine [17,26] and rarely
with Jeffrey pine [4].
LIFE FORM :
Tree
FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS :
No special status
OTHER STATUS :
NO-ENTRY
COMPILED BY AND DATE :
Lora L. Esser, December 1993
LAST REVISED BY AND DATE :
NO-ENTRY
AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION :
Esser, Lora L. 1993. Pinus washoensis. In: Remainder of Citation
DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
SPECIES: Pinus washoensis | Washoe Pine
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION :
Washoe pine occurs in three mountain ranges on the western rim of the
Great Basin in northeastern California and northwestern Nevada [3,4,17].
It occupies a few square miles on the east slopes of Mount Rose, Nevada,
and can be found in small stands in the southern Warner Mountains and in
the Bald Mountain range of northeastern California [3,4]. Isolated
stands have been reported in Oregon and British Columbia [4,16].
ECOSYSTEMS :
FRES21 Ponderosa pine
FRES23 Fir - spruce
FRES26 Lodgepole pine
STATES :
CA NV OR BC
ADMINISTRATIVE UNITS :
LAVO
BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS :
4 Sierra Mountains
5 Columbia Plateau
KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS :
K005 Mixed conifer forest
K007 Red fir forest
K008 Lodgepole pine - subalpine forest
SAF COVER TYPES :
207 Red fir
208 Whitebark pine
211 White fir
218 Lodgepole pine
237 Interior ponderosa pine
238 Western juniper
243 Sierra Nevada mixed conifer
247 Jeffrey pine
SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES :
NO-ENTRY
HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES :
Washoe pine typically occurs in pure stands at higher elevations along
the eastern slope of the Sierra Nevada. In the northern Sierra Nevada
and into the southern Cascade Range, it forms mixed stands with Jeffrey
pine, Pacific ponderosa pine, incense cedar (Libocedrus decurrens),
white fir (Abies concolor), California red fir (A. magnifica), and
western juniper (Juniperus occidentalis) [4,10,14,16,21]. Other common
tree associates include sugar pine (Pinus lambertiana) and quaking aspen
(Populus tremuloides var. aurea). Other associates include mountain
sweetroot (Osmorhiza chilensis), white hawkweed (Hieracium albiflorum),
greenleaf manzanita (Arctostaphylos patula), mountain big sagebrush
(Artemesia tridentata ssp. vaseyana), antelope bitterbrush (Purshia
tridentata), snowbrush ceanothus (Ceanothus velutinus), wooly wyethia
(Wyethia mollis), snowberry (Symphoricarpos vaccinioides), Idaho fescue
(Festuca idahoensis), Wheeler bluegrass (Poa nervosa), and Orcutt brome
(Bromus orcuttianus) [1,10,14,18,20,21].
Publications listing Washoe pine as a dominant species are:
Preliminary descriptions of the terrestrial natural communities of
California [10]
Symposium Proceedings--plant communities of southern California [13]
Forest habitat types of the South Warner Mountains, Modoc County,
California [20]
Montane and subalpine vegetation of the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Ranges
[21].
VALUE AND USE
SPECIES: Pinus washoensis | Washoe Pine
WOOD PRODUCTS VALUE :
NO-ENTRY
IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE :
The avian species composition of stands containing Washoe pine depends
on the stage of succession. A fire burned 450,000 acres (18,000 ha) of
a yellow pine (Washoe, Jeffrey, and ponderosa pines)-fir forest near
Truckee, California, in 1960. At postfire years 6 to 8, nine species of
birds were unique to the burned areas, six to the unburned area, and 17
were found on both sites. Shrub cover on the burned plot increased from
about 20 percent to over 43 percent from postfire year 6 to 25, and
birds that nest and feed in shrubs increased by over 500 percent.
Throughout the study, bird numbers remained relatively stable in the
unburned forest. On the burned plot, however, primary-cavity nesting
birds declined over time. The decline probably resulted from a decrease
in standing dead trees. Snag density declined from about 65 per acre
(26/ha) in 1966 to less than 12.5 per acre (<5/ha) in 1985 [18].
PALATABILITY :
NO-ENTRY
NUTRITIONAL VALUE :
NO-ENTRY
COVER VALUE :
NO-ENTRY
VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES :
NO-ENTRY
OTHER USES AND VALUES :
NO-ENTRY
MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
On eastern-slope yellow pine forests of northeastern California, logging
has decreased pines (ponderosa, Jeffrey, and Washoe pines) relative to
white fir and western juniper [14].
BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
SPECIES: Pinus washoensis | Washoe Pine
GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS :
Washoe pine is a native conifer which grows up to 115 feet (35 m) tall
and 5 feet (1.5 m) in diameter. It has a conic or flat-topped crown
[9]. The short, stout needles occur in bundles of three and are 4 to 6
inches (10-15 cm) long [4]. The seed cones are 2 to 3.2 inches (5-8 cm)
long and have short-winged seeds [4]. The bark is shallowly furrowed
[9]. The oldest Washoe pine is on Mount Rose, Nevada. Its estimated
age in 1962 exceeded 300 years. Several other trees in the area have
estimated ages of 100 to 250 years [4].
RAUNKIAER LIFE FORM :
Phanerophyte
REGENERATION PROCESSES :
Literature specific to Washoe pine regeneration is sparse. In the Mount
Rose population, Washoe pine exhibits low seed production and has low
reproductive capacity [4,17].
SITE CHARACTERISTICS :
Washoe pine is common on broad ridgetops and north-facing slopes
[18,20]. It may occur on other aspects; on volcanic ridges south of the
Warner Wilderness area, it comprises 50 to 75 percent of total stocking
on gentle west- and southwest-facing slopes [21]. Best growth occurs on
well-drained soils [9]. Washoe pine occurs from 5,500 to 8,500 feet
(1,650-2,550 m) elevation [4,9,10]. An isolated population in British
Columbia, Canada, occurs at 4,818 feet elevation (1,460 m) [4].
SUCCESSIONAL STATUS :
Facultative Seral Species
Washoe pine is a long-lived seral species in white fir communities [20].
It is plentiful in the community, with cover often equaling or exceeding
white fir. Fir reproduction usually exceeds that of Washoe pine,
however, unless fires are fairly frequent [20]. Washoe pine is dominant
at higher elevations [14,20].
SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT :
Washoe pine pollen is shed from June 24 to July 4 on Mount Rose [4].
Cones mature in August and September and open in September throughout
its range [27].
Natural seedling dormancy begins when soil temperature is below 50
degrees Fahrenheit (10 deg C) [11].
In the nursery, Washoe pine seedlings cease visible top growth by
mid-October and visible root growth by late November. In January top
growth is evident. The first traces of renewed root growth appear in
late February and bud swell begins in late March [11].
FIRE ECOLOGY
SPECIES: Pinus washoensis | Washoe Pine
FIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS :
Before settlement, eastern-slope yellow pine communities of northeastern
California generally consisted of either monotypic stands or mixtures of
Washoe, ponderosa, and Jeffrey pines. Structurally, eastside pine
forests usually consisted of widely scattered, large trees.
Low-severity fires were frequent, but forests may have had occasional
stand-replacing fires [14,28]. Canopy closures probably ranged from
about 30 percent on dry sites to 80 percent in the most productive
areas. A 1917 report stated that yellow pines of the area were often
only four-log trees (a standard log was 16 feet long), suggesting that
mature trees were shorter than 100 feet (30 m) [14].
Susceptibility to fire in mid-elevation Washoe pine stands has increased
since 1850 because of fuel buildups and increased stocking of white fir.
Juniper and shrub cover have replaced the typical shrub/grass understory
at low elevations as a result of livestock grazing and fire suppression
[14].
POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY :
Tree without adventitious-bud root crown
FIRE EFFECTS
SPECIES: Pinus washoensis | Washoe Pine
IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT :
Literature concerning fire effects specific to Washoe pine is lacking.
However, many of the yellow pines harvested in northeastern California
during the early 1900's survived earlier fires. Stumps 16 to 36 inches
(40.6-81.4 m) tall usually remained after harvest. The lowest portions
of the trees were left because they were defective from fire scarring or
accumulation of pitch from low-intensity fires [14].
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT :
NO-ENTRY
PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE :
Literature specific to Washoe pine's response to fire is lacking.
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE :
NO-ENTRY
FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
Fire suppression in white fir habitat types in northeastern California
leads to an increase in white fir, with a corresponding decrease in pine
species (including Washoe pine) reproduction [20].
A yellow pine-fir forest in the eastern Sierra Nevada near Truckee,
California, burned in a 1960 wildfire. In 1965, the burned plot had
greater cover of shrubs, herbs, and grasses than an adjacent unburned
plot. From 1966 to 1985 shrub cover increased while herbaceous cover
decreased. In postfire year 15 yellow pines were the dominant trees,
although white and California red fir were present. Yellow pines
codominated with the firs in nearby unburned stands. Data are shown
below [18]:
postfire year 15
density/ha basal area (sq.m/ha)
burned plot
yellow pine complex 97.4 3.1
white and California red fir 4.5 1.7
unburned plot
yellow pine complex 335.5 24.2
white and California red fir 448.8 15.1
The responses of small birds to succession after this wildfire
demonstrates the potential effectiveness of increasing habitat
diversity, spatially and temporally, on breeding bird populations [22].
In the eastside yellow pine forests of northeastern California, fuel
loading has increased over time. Early logging operations increased
slash and fire hazards. Invasion of eastside pine lands by cheatgrass
(Bromus tectorum) and increases of woody shrubs, dense thickets of young
trees, and accretion of woody debris have increased the probability of
stand-replacing fires [14].
REFERENCES
SPECIES: Pinus washoensis | Washoe Pine
REFERENCES :
1. Allen-Diaz, Barbara H. 1991. Water table and plant species relationships
in Sierra Nevada meadows. American Midland Naturalist. 126: 30-43.
[16149]
2. Bernard, Stephen R.; Brown, Kenneth F. 1977. Distribution of mammals,
reptiles, and amphibians by BLM physiographic regions and A.W. Kuchler's
associations for the eleven western states. Tech. Note 301. Denver, CO:
U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. 169 p.
[434]
3. Critchfield, William B.; Little, Elbert L., Jr. 1966. Geographic
distribution of the pines of the world. Misc. Publ. 991. Washington, DC:
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 97 p. [20314]
4. Critchfield, William B. 1984. Crossability and relationships of Washoe
pine. Madrono. 31(3): 144-170. [21749]
5. Duffield, J. W. 1953. Pine pollen collection dates--annual and
geographic variation. For. Res. Notes No. 85. Berkeley, CA: U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, California Forest and Range
Experiment Station. 9 p. [17970]
6. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and
Canada. Washington, DC: Society of American Foresters. 148 p. [905]
7. Garrison, George A.; Bjugstad, Ardell J.; Duncan, Don A.; [and others].
1977. Vegetation and environmental features of forest and range
ecosystems. Agric. Handb. 475. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service. 68 p. [998]
8. Griffin, James R.; Critchfield, William B. 1972. The distribution of
forest trees in California. Res. Pap. PSW-82. Berkeley, CA: U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest and
Range Experiment Station. 118 p. [1041]
9. Hickman, James C., ed. 1993. The Jepson manual: Higher plants of
California. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. 1400 p.
[21992]
10. Holland, Robert F. 1986. Preliminary descriptions of the terrestrial
natural communities of California. Sacramento, CA: California Department
of Fish and Game. 156 p. [12756]
11. Jenkinson, James L. 1980. Improving plantation establishment by
optimizing growth capacity and planting time of western yellow pine.
Res. Pap. PSW-154. Berkeley, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service, Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 22 p.
[17966]
12. Kuchler, A. W. 1964. Manual to accompany the map of potential vegetation
of the conterminous United States. Special Publication No. 36. New York:
American Geographical Society. 77 p. [1384]
13. Latting, June, ed. 1976. Symposium proceedings--plant communities of
southern California. Special Publication No. 2. Berkeley, CA: California
Native Plant Society. 164 p. [1414]
14. Laudenslayer, William F., Jr.; Darr, Herman H.; Smith, Sydney. 1989.
Historical effects of forest management practices on eastside pine
communities in northeastern California. In: Tecle, Aregai; Covington, W.
Wallace; Hamre, R. H., technical coordinators. Multiresource management
of ponderosa pine forests: Proceedings of the symposium; 1989 November
14-16; Flagstaff, AZ. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-185. Fort Collins, CO: U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and
Range Experiment Station: 26-34. [11305]
15. Little, Elbert L., Jr. 1975. Rare and local conifers in the United
States. Conservation Research Rep. No. 19. Washington, DC: U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 25 p. [15691]
16. Munz, Philip A. 1973. A California flora and supplement. Berkeley, CA:
University of California Press. 1905 p. [6155]
17. Niebling, Charles R.; Conkle, M. Thompson. 1990. Diversity of Washoe
pine and comparisons with allozymes of ponderosa pine races. Canadian
Journal of Forest Research. 20(3): 298-308. [15841]
18. Raphael, Martin G.; Morrison, Michael L.; Yoder-Williams, Michael P.
1987. Breeding bird populations during twenty-five years of postfire
succession in the Sierra Nevada. Condor. 89: 614-626. [6873]
19. Raunkiaer, C. 1934. The life forms of plants and statistical plant
geography. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 632 p. [2843]
20. Riegel, Gregg M.; Thornburgh, Dale A.; Sawyer, John O. 1990. Forest
habitat types of the South Warner Mountains, Modoc County, California.
Madrono. 37(2): 88-112. [11466]
21. Rundel, Philip W.; Parsons, David J.; Gordon, Donald T. 1977. Montane
and subalpine vegetation of the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Ranges. In:
Barbour, Michael G.; Major, Jack, eds. Terrestrial vegetation of
California. New York: John Wiley & Sons: 559-599. [4235]
22. Severson, Kieth E.; Rinne, John N. 1990. Increasing habitat diversity in
Southwestern forests and woodlands via prescribed fire. In: Krammes, J.
S., technical coordinator. Effects of fire management of Southwestern
natural resources: Proceedings of the symposium; 1988 November 15-17;
Tucson, AZ. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-191. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment
Station: 94-104. [11277]
23. Stickney, Peter F. 1989. Seral origin of species originating in northern
Rocky Mountain forests. Unpublished draft on file at: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Fire
Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT; RWU 4403 files. 7 p. [20090]
24. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service. 1982.
National list of scientific plant names. Vol. 1. List of plant names.
SCS-TP-159. Washington, DC. 416 p. [11573]
25. Vasek, Frank C.; Thorne, Robert F. 1977. Transmontane coniferous
vegetation. In: Barbour, Michael G.; Major, Jack, eds. Terrestrial
vegetation of California. New York: John Wiley & Sons: 797-832. [4265]
26. Wells, Osborn O. 1964. Geographic variation in ponderosa pine. I. The
ecotypes and their distribution. Silvae Genetica. 13(4): 89-103.
[15928]
27. Kuchler, A. W. 1964. Manual to accompany the map of potential vegetation
of the conterminous United States. Special Publication No. 36. New York:
American Geographical Society. 77 p. [1384]
28. Vale, Thomas R. 1977. Forest changes in the Warner Mountains,
California. Annals of the Association of American Geographers. 67(1):
28-45. [20226]
29. Haller, John R. 1962. Variation and hybridization in ponderosa and
jeffrey pines. University of California Publications in Botany.
Berkeley, CA: University of California Press; 34(2): 129-166. [1064]
30. Mirov, N. T. 1961. Composition of gum turpentines of pines. Tech. Bull.
No. 1239. Berkeley, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 158 p. [22164]
Index
Related categories for Species: Pinus washoensis
| Washoe Pine
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