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Wildlife, Animals, and Plants
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Introductory
SPECIES: Quercus kelloggii | California Black Oak
ABBREVIATION :
QUEKEL
SYNONYMS :
NO-ENTRY
SCS PLANT CODE :
QUKE
COMMON NAMES :
California black oak
black oak
Kellogg oak
TAXONOMY :
The currently accepted scientific name of California black oak is
Quercus kelloggii Newb. [18,31]. Recognized forms are as follows:
Q. kelloggii Newb. forma cibata Jeps.
Q. kelloggii Newb. forma kelloggii
Quercus kelloggii forma cibata is a scrub form found on high-elevation
talus slopes [7].
California black oak produces two natural hybrids. Q. Xmorehus Kell.
(oracle oak) results from crossing with Q. wislizenii (interior live
oak). Q. Xganderi C. B. Wolf (no common name) is produced from
hybridization with Q. agrifolia var. oxyadenia (coast live oak) [7,31].
LIFE FORM :
Tree
FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS :
No special status
OTHER STATUS :
NO-ENTRY
COMPILED BY AND DATE :
Janet L. Howard, June 1992
LAST REVISED BY AND DATE :
NO-ENTRY
AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION :
Howard, Janet L. Quercus kelloggii. In: Remainder of Citation
DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
SPECIES: Quercus kelloggii | California Black Oak
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION :
California black oak is distributed along foothills and lower mountains
of California and southern Oregon. It is found from Lane County, Oregon
south through the Cascade Range, the Sierra Nevada, and the Coast,
Transverse, and Peninsular ranges to San Diego County, California
[18,31].
ECOSYSTEMS :
FRES20 Douglas-fir
FRES21 Ponderosa pine
FRES27 Redwood
FRES28 Western hardwoods
FRES34 Chaparral - mountain shrub
STATES :
CA OR
ADMINISTRATIVE UNITS :
KICA LAVO REDW SEQU YOSE
BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS :
1 Northern Pacific Border
2 Cascade Mountains
3 Southern Pacific Border
4 Sierra Mountains
KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS :
K005 Mixed conifer forest
K006 Redwood forest
K009 Pine - cypress forest
K010 Ponderosa shrub forest
K011 Western ponderosa forest
K026 Oregon oakwoods
K028 Mosaic of K002 and K026
K029 California oakwoods
K033 Chaparral
K034 Montane chaparral
SAF COVER TYPES :
229 Pacific Douglas-fir
231 Port-Orford-cedar
232 Redwood
233 Oregon white oak
234 Douglas-fir - tanoak - Pacific madrone
244 Pacific ponderosa pine - Douglas-fir
245 Pacific ponderosa pine
246 California black oak
247 Jeffrey pine
248 Knobcone pine
249 Canyon live oak
250 Blue oak - gray pine
255 California coast live oak
SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES :
NO-ENTRY
HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES :
California black oak occurs in pure or mixed stands. Pure stands
usually indicate sites unfavorable to conifer growth or reoccurring
disturbance such as fire or logging activities [15]. Published
classifications naming California black oak as a dominant species are
as follows:
A classification system for California's hardwoods rangelands [1].
California upland forests and woodlands [2].
Montane and subalpine vegetation of the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Ranges [38].
Mixed evergreen forest [40].
Montane and subalpine forests of the Transverse and Peninsular Ranges [43].
An introduction to the plant communities of the Santa Ana and San
Jacinto Mountains [45].
The redwood forest and associated North Coast forests [48].
VALUE AND USE
SPECIES: Quercus kelloggii | California Black Oak
WOOD PRODUCTS VALUE :
California black oak is used for making cabinets, furniture, high grade
lumber, pallets, and industrial timbers. It is also used as fuelwood
[7,46].
IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE :
California black oak is a critical species for wildlife. Oaks (Quercus
spp.) may be the single most important genus used by wildlife for food
and cover in California forests and rangelands [14], and California
black oak occupies more total area in California than any other hardwood
species [5]. Livestock also make heavy use of this species for food and
cover [39].
Cavities in California black oak provide den or nest sites for owls,
various woodpeckers, tree squirrels, and black bear [14]. Trees provide
valuable shade for livestock and wildlife during the hot summer months
[13]. California black oak forest types are heavily used for spring,
summer, and fall cover by black bear [7].
California black oak is browsed by mule deer and livestock [39]. Acorns
are heavily utilized by livestock, mule deer, feral pig, rodents,
mountain quail, Stellar's jay, and woodpeckers [19]. Acorns constitute
an average of 50 percent of the fall and winter diets of western grey
squirrel and black-tailed deer during good mast years [35]. Fawn
survival rates increase or decrease with the size of the acorn crop [7].
California black oak is a preferred foraging substrate for many birds.
All of 68 bird species observed in oak woodlands of the Tehachapi
Mountains of California used California black oak for part of their
foraging activities. The acorn woodpecker, the Northern oriole, and
the Nashville warbler showed greatest preference for California black
oak [4].
PALATABILITY :
California black oak acorns are highly palatible to black-tailed deer.
In a study in the Cuyamaca Mountains of southwestern California,
California black oak acorns were preferred over any other type of
forage. Deer would search through forest litter for acorns even during
spring, when new, palatable brush sprouts were readily available [6].
The palatability of California black oak foliage has been rated as
follows [39]:
deer: excellent to good
cattle: good to poor
sheep: fair to poor
goats: fair to poor
horses: poor to useless
NUTRITIONAL VALUE :
The acorns provide little nutrition for herbivore growth and
bone-building but are an excellent source of energy due to the high fat
content [39]. The nutritional value of the acorns (by percent) is rated
as follows [13]:
crude protein 3.43
crude fiber 14.07
fat 11.05
ash 1.14
calcium 0.09
phosphorus 0.06
tannins 1.81
COVER VALUE :
NO-ENTRY
VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES :
California black oak is used for wildlife habitat restoration and as a
soil stabilizer in watershed areas. Seedlings are best established from
fall-planted acorns. Mortality due to acorn predation and
herbivory is usually high, and replacement plantings are neccessary for
good stand establishment. Protecting seedlings with wire caging
extending 36 inches (92 cm) aboveground and 18 inches (46 cm)
belowground reduces the need for replacement plantings. Ripe acorns are
harvested from trees in late summer or early fall. Acorns collected
after mid-fall are frequently unviable due to fungal infection [32].
OTHER USES AND VALUES :
The deep shade and aesthetic appeal provided by California black oak
makes it a highly desirable landscaping ornamental.
Cork oak (Quercus suber) scions were grafted onto California black oak
rootstalk in the 1940's as a source of cork during the wartime cork
shortage [7].
California Indians preferred California black oak acorns over those of
other species for making acorn meal [11].
MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
California black oak comprises a total volume of 29 percent of
California's hardwood timber resources [36], and is the major hardwood
sawn into lumber in that state. The total estimated area of species
occurrence is 894,000 acres (2.24 million ha): 591,000 acres (1.48
million ha) of timberland and 303,000 acres (757,500 ha) of woodland.
Sixty percent of this land is privately owned; 31 percent is in National
Forests; and 9 percent is on other public lands [5]. California black
oak has greatly decreased from historic numbers, however. This is due
to a number of factors, including drought, animal foraging, logging
practices, fire suppression, and a variety of other human impacts [14].
Cutting green trees for fuelwood has contributed to the decline of this
species, and illegal harvesting of green trees from public lands is a
continuing problem. Other management considerations are as follows:
Hardwood production: Plantations of California black oak have been
successfully established in clearcuts from acorn plantings [29].
Thinning such stands promotes stand productivity and wood quality, and
is recommended when trees are from 30 to 50 feet (9-15 m) tall or when
stand density exceeds 125 square feet of basal area per acre (29 sq
m/ha). This tree has also been managed for hardwood production by
maintaining scattered pure stands within coniferous forests [42].
Stands of this species will often establish on poorer sites, where
conifer seedling establishment has not been successful [7].
Timber production: California black oak serves as a nurse tree to
conifers. Ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga
menziesii), and incense-cedar (Libocedrus decurrens) seedlings often
establish under crowns of large California black oak while adjacent
ground remains unproductive [7].
California black oak seedlings do not generally grow through and
outcompete a stand of young ponderosa pine [7]. Root crown sprouts,
however, may outcompete young conifer seedlings.
Control: If control of California black oak shrub is desired for site
preparation prior to conifer seedling plantings, phenoxy herbicides such
as 2,4-D or picloram give good to excellent results [8].
Damaging agents: California black oak is highly susceptible to fungi.
Heart rot is mainly caused by two fungal pathogens: Inonotus dryophilus
and Laetiporus sulphereus. Another fungus, Armillaria mellea, causes
root and butt rot in older or fire-damaged trees [7,28]. California
black oak is also susceptible to several leaf diseases, such as oak leaf
fungus (Septonia quercicola) and oak anthracnose (Gnomonia veneta) [7].
This species is frequently infested with mistletoe (Phoradendron
villisum ssp. villosum) [7].
BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
SPECIES: Quercus kelloggii | California Black Oak
GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS :
California black oak is a native, deciduous tree, typically growing from
30 to 80 feet (9-25 m) in height and from 1 to 4.5 feet (0.3-1.4 m) in
d.b.h. Large trees may exceed 120 feet (36 m) in height and 5 feet (1.6
m) d.b.h. The species also grows in scrub form on poor sites [7]. In
open areas the crown is broad and rounded, with lower branches nearly
touching the ground or forming a browse line. In closed stands, the
crown is narrow and slender in young trees and irregularly broad in old
trees. Trunks are usually free of branches for 20 to 40 feet (6-12 m)
in closed stands. Trunks are often forked, and usually decayed and
hollow in older trees [34]. The bark is thin and smooth in young trees,
becoming moderately thick, deeply fissured, and platy with age. This
oak grows from one to several vertical roots which penetrate to bedrock,
with large, laterally spreading roots extending off from vertical ones.
It also has a number of surface roots [7]. Acorns are relatively large
in this species, from 1 to 1.2 inches (2.5-3 cm) long and 0.6 to 0.7
inch (1.5-1.8 cm) wide. The deeply lobed leaves are typically 4 to 8
inches (10-20 cm) long [31]. California black oak can live up to 500
years of age [7].
RAUNKIAER LIFE FORM :
Phanerophyte
REGENERATION PROCESSES :
Sexual: California black oak is wind pollinated. Trees sporadically
produce acorns beginning at 30 years of age, with large quantities
produced beginning at 80 to 100 years of age [7]. Mast size varies each
year. A study in Carmel Valley, California, showed that 55 percent of
trees produced no acorns, while 28 percent produced bumper crops [9].
Average production for a 150- to 200-year-old tree is 6,500 acorns [7].
This species apparently produces some acorns that require overwinter
stratification and others that are capable of immediate germination
[41]. Acorns are disseminated by gravity or animals [7]. Establishment
requires a bare mineral or light duff seedbed [22]. Acorn viability
varies greatly. In the San Bernadino National Forest of California,
percent germination ranged from 20 to 93, depending upon the parent tree
and moisture content of the acorn [20]. Generally, acorns with higher
moisture contents show poor emergence; acorns of this species are highly
susceptible to fungi. Animals also greatly influence seedling
recruitment. Insects destroy many acorns, and many others are consumed
by rodents, black-tailed deer, and livestock [7]. In a study area in
the Cuyamaca Mountains, deer consumed 85 percent of one season's mast.
The following spring, deer consumed 100 percent of emerging seedlings.
As a result of acorn and seedling predation, there has been almost no
seedling recruitment in the area for the past 25 years [6].
Germination is hypogeal. Acorn germination and subsequent seedling
establishment rates are best in acorns buried by seed-caching rodents or
birds. The California ground squirrel and the Stellar's jay are of
greatest importance as California black oak acorn cachers. Seedlings
cannot establish on heavy clay soils or soils compacted by logging.
Besides previously mentioned deer, other animals adversely affecting
seedling establishment include pocket gopher, lagomorphs, grasshoppers,
and other insects. Young seedlings are often killed by drought. Shoot
and horizontal root development are slow for the first 6 to 7 years,
with most initial growth concentrated on vertical roots. Seedlings do
not compete well against conifer seedlings but will grow through
chaparral brush [7].
Vegetative: California black oak sprouts vigorously from the stump or
root crown after being cut or burned [7].
SITE CHARACTERISTICS :
California black oak grows on well-drained soil derived from diverse
parent materials. It is rarely found, however, on serpentine soil.
Soil textures range from sandy loams to gravelly-clay loams. Best
growth is attained on deep, slightly acid loam. In Oregon, the
elevational range is from 450 to 1,000 feet (137-305 m). In California,
it varies from 200 to 8,000 feet (60-2,440 m) [7]. The climate is
mediterranean, characterized by wet, mild winters and hot, dry summers.
Eighty to ninety percent of the annual precipitation falls from November
to April [30].
Associated species: Common overstory associates of California black oak
not listed as SAF cover types include incense-cedar, tanoak (Lithocarpus
densiflora), interior live oak, Pacific dogwood (Cornus nuttallii), and
bigleaf maple (Acer macrophyllum) [7].
Shrub associates include over 30 species. Some of the most common are
greenleaf manzanita (Arctostaphylos patula), whiteleaf manzanita (A.
viscida), deerbrush (Ceanothus integerrimus), Brewer oak (Q. garryana
var. breweri), Sierra gooseberry (Ribes roezlii), poison-oak
(Toxicodendron diversilobum), and Sierra mountain misery (Chamaebatia
foliolosa) [7].
SUCCESSIONAL STATUS :
This tree is moderately shade tolerant in early life, growing best in
full sun but persisting in dense shade. Pole-sized California black oak
is less shade tolerant, growing tall and thin until reaching a position
in the canopy where light is received. Older trees are shade intolerant
[7].
The successional status of this species is unclear. Cooper [10] has
suggested it is a climax species, representing a forest type
transitional between chaparral and coniferous forest. McDonald [15]
states that it is a persistant subclimax species, with frequent fire or
logging activities maintaining its dominance. According McDonald,
California black oak is slowly replaced (40+ years) by conifers in the
absence of disturbance.
SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT :
The following seasonal development has been reported for this species [7]:
catkins mature: mid-March to mid-May
leaf drop: mid-August to mid-September
acorns mature: mid-August to mid-September of second year
acorns drop: mid-August to early November of second year
FIRE ECOLOGY
SPECIES: Quercus kelloggii | California Black Oak
FIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS :
Fire ecology: California black oak's large leaves produce large amounts
of forest litter. Under a 75-year-old stand in the Sierra National
Forest of California, the average annual litter accumulation by weight
was 0.6 ton per acre (1.3 t/ha), and total litter accumulation was 6.2
tons per acre (13.9 t/ha) [24].
Plant adaptations: California black oak has adapted to fire by
sprouting from the root crown. Further fire adaptations include an
extensive root system capable of supporting vigorous sprouting, and
seedbed requirements (mineral soil or light duff) matching those
produced by light- or moderate-severity fire [7,34].
POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY :
Tree with adventitious-bud root crown/root sucker
Initial-offsite colonizer (off-site, initial community)
Secondary colonizer - off-site seed
FIRE EFFECTS
SPECIES: Quercus kelloggii | California Black Oak
IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT :
California black oak is fire sensitive. The outer bark chars readily,
and the cambium suffers heat damage even where bark is thick (over 0.5
inch [1.3 cm]). All trees in a stand are usually top-killed following
crown fire regardless of size [33], and complete kill is common after
such fire in pole-sized or smaller trees [22]. Complete kill is also
common when individual trees or clumps of trees are surrounded by or
adjoining brush [33].
The amount of damage sustained by surface fire depends upon fire
severity. A large percentage of California black oak are completely
killed following severe surface fire, especially when trees are shrubby
[22]. Moderate-severity fire typically produces localized charring and
cambium death in an older trunk, while other trunk portions remain
undamaged [34]. Approximately half of all young trees in a stand will
be killed by moderate-severity fire [22]; most of the others will be
top-killed. Low-severity fire causes some cambium damage to trees
pole-sized and under [2,22]. Spring fire corresponding to the active
growing season results in greater tissue damage than fire in other
seasons [21].
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT :
NO-ENTRY
PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE :
Within a few weeks following fire, most surviving trees sprout from the
root crown and undamaged portions of the trunk. This response is
independent of the rainy season; new shoots draw upon water reserves in
the root system and appear following spring, summer, or fall fire.
Sprouting is vigorous in saplings and young trees. Very old trees may
fail to sprout or produce only coppice sprouts [30]. Fire prepares an
ideal seedbed, and seedlings establish in the first postfire growing
season. California black oak seedling populations were significantly
increased (p>0.05) following a light-intensity prescribed burn of a
Jeffrey pine (Pinus jeffreyi)-California black oak forest in Cuyamaca
Rancho State Park, California [27]. Long-term recovery of this species
is favorable; fire creates the open canopy required for optimum seedling
and sprout growth [22].
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE :
NO-ENTRY
FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
The decline in Califonia black oak populations is due to many factors,
and past policies of fire suppression is one of them. This species has
evolved under a fire regime of low- to moderate-severity surface fires
[22,23] at average intervals of 3.5 years [47]. Fire suppression has
resulted in major structural changes in coniferous forests and woodlands
of California and southern Oregon. Populations of shade-tolerant white
fir (Abies concolor) and Douglas-fir have greatly increased. There has
been a greater than 300 percent increase in aggregations of pole-sized
conifers. The understory, once an open mixture of shrubs, saplings,
grasses and forbs, is now often dominated by dense stands of coniferous
saplings or dense, mixed stands of coniferous saplings and brush. Fuel
loading in these forests represents an unnatural buildup of downed woody
materials. When these forests burn, the dense understory produces a
ladder effect, resulting in crown fire [23]. This results in a
high-consumption, severe fire that is frequently fatal to California
black oak [22]. When the management objective is to increase California
black oak recruitment in these dense forests, understories are usually
cleared prior to prescribed burning. Kauffman and Martin [22] have
recommended low- to moderate-consumption prescribed fire. Forest floor
reductions to less than 8 to 16 tons per acre (18-36 t/ha) have been
suggested. This may require several fires. Burning favors seedling
establishment in several ways. It prepares a favorable seedbed not only
by removing litter, but also by killing damaging molds and insects
present in the litter layer. Sapling mortality due to root rot
decreases following fire [2].
Following a prescribed March burn on the Shasta-Trinity National Forest
of California, surviving California black oaks produced a bumper crop of
sound acorns, while acorns on nearby unburned ground were mostly
unviable. Researchers attributed the difference to insect predation of
acorns on the unburned forest floor [7].
FIRE CASE STUDIES
SPECIES: Quercus kelloggii | California Black Oak
CASE NAME :
Fire severity & survival/Forest floor biomass & germination
REFERENCE :
Kauffman, J. B.; Martin, R. E. 1987 [22]
SEASON/SEVERITY CLASSIFICATION :
early spring/low-severity
late spring/moderate-severity
early fall/moderate-severity
late fall/low-severity
STUDY LOCATION :
The study site was located in the Blodgett Forest Research Station near
Georgetown, California.
PREFIRE VEGETATIVE COMMUNITY :
The forest was composed of second-stand growth, approximately 70 years
of age, and codominated by ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), white fir
(Abies concolor), and incense-cedar (Libocedrus decurrens). Very old
California black oak (Quercus kelloggii) and young, shrub-like
individuals were present. Understory species were not reported.
TARGET SPECIES PHENOLOGICAL STATE :
NO-ENTRY
SITE DESCRIPTION :
Soil is classified as occurring in the Holland family, Moderate Deep
Basic (fine-loamy, mixed mesic Ultic Haplo eralfs). Fuel loading ranged
from 134 to 181 tons per acre (131-177 t/ha). Organic horizons
accounted for 60 to 80 percent of total fuel load. Slopes were nearly
level (<10%), elevation was 4,330 feet (1,300 m), and mean annual
precipitation was 68 inches (1,700 mm).
Burn day conditions were as follows:
Relative Temperature Wind Lower Duff
humidity speed moisture content
(%) (deg C) (km/hr) (%)
Date of burn
early fall (9/20/84) 25-48 19-23 0-8 23.2 +/- 4.6
late fall (10/8/83) 49-63 16-18 0-3 90.1 +/- 7.8
early spring (5/17/84) 31-57 16-17 0-3 135.0 +/- 16.3
late spring (6/26-29/84) 21-72 17-27 0-3 51.6 +/- 10.6
FIRE DESCRIPTION :
Six 0.25-hectare blocks with four treatment units per block were
established. The treatments included four different prescribed fires of
varying season and fire severity levels and a control (no burn).
Survival of existing California black oak was established by randomly
tagging 15 to 50 individuals in each treatment unit from each block prior
to burning. Trees were examined for mortality and survival for the next
2 years after burning.
Density of seedlings was calculated by two measurements in 15 2-meter-
squared, permanent plots in each treatment subunit of each block. Plots
were measured prior to burning, and at the second growing season after
fire.
Burn treatments resulted in the following fuel consumption:
early fall/moderate-severity 74.7 %
late fall/low-severity 67.8 %
early spring/low-severity 16.3 %
late spring/moderate-severity 61.1 %
FIRE EFFECTS ON TARGET SPECIES :
Moderate-severity fall fire resulted in the lowest survival rate.
Results were as follows:
Early fall Late fall Early spring Late spring Control
mod-burn low-burn low-burn mod-burn
survival (%) 9.0 35.0 69.0 28.0 100
comsumption (%) 93.5 64.2 11.3 75.9 ---
biomass consumption
(tons/hectare) 110.4 68.0 11.1 63.2 ---
At two postfire growing seasons, California black oak seedlings appeared
in significantly (p>0.05) greater densities at all burn sites except the
early spring/low-severity fire. Results were as follows:
% Seedlings Postfire biomass of
#/ha in population duff layers(t/ha)
early fall/mod-sev. 367(+/-327) 79 7.7
late fall/low-sev. 333(+/-152) 67 37.8
late spring/mod-sev. 267(+/-200) 80 20.1
early spring/low-sev. 67(+/- 67) 15 86.4
control 133(+/-133) 17 100.0
FIRE MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS :
California black oak seedling density increased as a result of the
prescribed fire. Optimum seedling establishment was realized when the
duff component was reduced to 15.5 tons per acre (38 t/ha) or less. Few
California black oaks were killed by low-intensity prescribed fire.
Late fall, low-intensity burning probably represents a good compromise
between loss of existing trees and increased seedling establishment.
REFERENCES
SPECIES: Quercus kelloggii | California Black Oak
REFERENCES :
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Proceedings of the symposium on multiple-use management of California's
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Pillsbury, Norman H., technical coordinators. Proceedings of the
symposium on multiple-use management of California's hardwood resources;
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13. Duncan, D. A.; Clawson, W. J. 1980. Livestock utilization of
California's oak woodlands. In: Plumb, Timothy R., technical
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Index
Related categories for Species: Quercus kelloggii
| California Black Oak
|
 |
