The fully documented scientific name of shrub live oak is
Quercus turbinella Greene (Fagaceae) [32,39,40,91,101]. It is a member of the white oak subgenus Lepidobalanus or Quercus [41,64,77,]. Varieties are as follows [40,91,101]:
Quercus turbinella var. californica (Tucker) L. Benson California shrub live oak Quercus turbinella var. turbinella shrub live oak
Shrub live oak hybridizes with Gambel
oak (Q. gambelii): The hybrid is described as Q. × pauciloba Rydb. [49]. Shrub live oak-Gambel oak hybrids are particularly evident in northern and southwestern Utah and in central Colorado [13,14,21,91,92,93]. Alvord oak (Q. × alvordiana Eastw.) results from hybridization of shrub live oak and blue oak (Q. douglasii) [49]. Shrub live oak also hybridizes with sand shinnery oak (Q. havardii), Nuttall's scrub oak (Q. dumosa), gray oak (Q. grisea), and valley oak (Q. lobata) [14,30,49,67,92,93,99,102].
Welsh [99] divided Utah oaks into 3 complexes, one of which he identified as the
shrub live oak (Quercus turbinella) complex. According
to Welsh [99], there are "no apparent barriers to hybridization and intermediates are known
between nearly all (species)" within the complex.
Shrub live oak grows in the mountains of southwestern Colorado
through southern Utah and Nevada to southern California and northern
Mexico [49,91]. It extends eastward to the northwestern
portion of the Trans-Pecos region of western Texas [49]. Shrub
live oak is most abundant in the chaparral
of central Arizona [8,14,63,68]. Quercus turbinella var.
turbinella grows throughout most of the range of the
species as a whole [49]. California shrub live oak grows
from central San Benito County in California southeast in the inner South Coast
Ranges to the mountain slopes near the southern and western borders
of the Mojave Desert [90].
The northern distribution of shrub live oak is limited by
spring freezes and summer moisture stress [57,78].
It is strongly influenced by the "Arizona monsoon gradient," which generates
summer precipitation in the Southwest. Neilson and
Wullstein [57] report that the frequency, intensity, and
extent of late spring freezes, and intensity and
extent of the "Arizona monsoon" appear to be the major factors
controlling successful sexual reproduction in shrub live oak.
Shrub live oak-Gambel oak hybrids have been reported
hundreds of miles north of the present-day range of shrub
live oak in parts of northern Utah and central Colorado
[14,93]. Macrofossil evidence suggests that shrub
live oak migrated northward in the warmer altithermal
(or hypsithermal) period during which the Arizona monsoon
shifted [14,57]. Later climatic shifts to cooler temperatures
presumably eliminated shrub live oak from this northern area,
but the more cold-hardy hybrids survived in some protected
areas [14,30].
201 Blue oak woodland
202 Coast live oak woodland
203 Riparian woodland
206 Chamise chaparral
207 Scrub oak mixed chaparral
412 Juniper-pinyon woodland
413 Gambel oak
416 True mountain-mahogany
503 Arizona chaparral
504 Juniper-pinyon pine woodland
509 Transition between oak-juniper woodland and mahogany-oak association
730 Sand shinnery oak
Shrub live oak grows in semiarid, lower elevation chaparral,
pinyon-juniper (Pinus-Juniperus spp.), shrub deserts, oak woodlands, ponderosa pine (P.
ponderosa) and riparian communities of the Southwest
[37,87,91,101]. It is a dominant shrub in Arizona chaparral and
frequently comprises up to 50% of the shrub cover on these
sites [42,63]. Published classifications listing shrub live oak as a dominant
or indicator species in community types or plant
associations are presented below.
Forest and woodland habitat types (plant associations) of
Arizona south of the Mogollon Rim and southwestern New Mexico [2]
Vegetation and soils of the Pine and Mathews Canyon watersheds
[5]
Arizona chaparral: plant associations and ecology [9]
Woodland classification: the pinyon-juniper formation [38]
Vegetation of the San Bernardino Mountains [51]
A series vegetation classification for Region 3 [53]
The natural vegetation of Arizona [59]
A vegetation classification system applied to southern California [66]
Plant associations (habitat types) of the forests and
woodlands of Arizona and New Mexico [85]
Vegetation and flora of Fort Bowie National Historic Site, Arizona
[98]
In Arizona chaparral, shrub live oak commonly occurs with pointleaf
manzanita (Arctostaphylos pungens), Pringle manzanita
(A. pringlei), grama (Bouteloua spp.), mountain-mahogany
(Cercocarpus spp.), hollyleaf
buckthorn (Rhamnus crocea), sugar sumac (Rhus ovata),
desert ceanothus (Ceanothus greggii),
Emory oak (Quercus emoryi), yellowleaf silktassel (Garrya flavescens), wait-a-minute
bush (Mimosa biuncifera), yerba-santa (Eriodictyon angustifolium), broom snakeweed
(Gutierrezia sarothrae), and bottlebrush squirreltail
(Elymus elymoides) [16,24,25,42,74,70,79,87].
Common associates of shrub live oak in pinyon-juniper woodlands
include oneseed juniper (J. monosperma), Utah juniper
(J. osteosperma), singleleaf pinyon
(P. monophylla), Colorado pinyon (P. edulis), grama,
and skunkbush sumac (R. trilobata) [19,33].
Shrub live oak generally provides relatively little browse for most
species of wildlife and livestock. In many areas it is used heavily
only when other more palatable species are lacking [70]; however, shrub live oak is
sometimes an important food source for deer and livestock [8]. In southern and central Arizona,
it is considered to be a valuable browse plant because of its abundance and evergreen leaves [94]. Shrub live oak can be a valuable emergency winter food when snow is
deep or when preferred foods are scarce [8]. Shrub live
oak also provides an excellent source of emergency browse during
droughts when other plants become desiccated and unpalatable
[94]. Shrub live oak can survive heavy browsing and may remain as
"almost the only forage" on deteriorated ranges in Arizona
[35].
The foliage of shrub live oak is utilized to at least some degree by a
number of big game species. New,
succulent growth is the most palatable and is readily consumed [8,65].
New growth is described as "fair" forage for deer in Arizona. In
some areas, deer may consume considerable amounts of foliage
[65,94]. Use of shrub live oak by mule deer in the southern
Rocky Mountains is described as "moderate" in winter and "light" in
summer [46]. Use of shrub live oak by desert
mule deer is described as "low to high" in winter, "low" in spring,
"moderate to high" during summer, and "low" in the fall
[44]. Desert bighorn sheep feed on shrub live oak
in Arizona [82].
Cattle, domestic sheep [94], and domestic goats use shrub live oak at least moderately [7]. In
some Arizona locations, shrub
live oak may become too dense for livestock and big game use [70].
Acorns of shrub live oak and related species constitute an
important source of mast for many small birds and mammals
in the Southwest. Acorns are utilized by the collared peccary, wild turkey, numerous
rodents such as Abert's squirrel, geese,
grouse, quail, scrub jays, and many other birds
[8,63,97]. Scrub jays and many rodents collect and
cache acorns of shrub live oak, thereby aiding in seed
dispersal [63]. Mule deer, white-tailed deer, and cattle also consume acorns during the
fall [8,50,63,96].
In the Southwest, scrub live oak cambium
is eaten by sapsuckers, porcupines eat the bark, and beavers consume the twigs [97].
Palatability of shrub live oak to most species of wildlife and livestock
is relatively low in most seasons [8,86]. It is generally used
only lightly by deer in Arizona [65] and most other big
game species throughout its range. New
sprouts are most palatable and are browsed readily [8,65,86]. Domestic
goats, however, frequently use it year-round
[8,43]. In an Arizona chaparral study,
shrub live oak was the most preferred species of domestic goats
during the first weeks after goats were released onto the
range [43]. Shrub live oak is fairly palatable to cattle and
domestic sheep in some areas [94].
The palatability of shrub live oak for livestock and wildlife
species for shrub live oak in Utah is as follows [20]:
Cattle Poor
Domestic sheep Poor
Horses Poor
Pronghorn Fair
Elk Poor
Mule deer Fair
Small mammals Good
Small nongame birds Poor
Upland game birds Good
Waterfowl Poor
Crude fiber is lowest in May and highest during the winter months [76]. Crude
protein levels of shrub live oaks in California varied seasonally as follows
[4]:
Oven-dry weight (%)
January 7.7
February 7.3
March 7.5
April 6.9
Nutritional value (%) for Quercus spp. forage is as follows [55]:
Shrub live oak provides effective cover for a wide range of birds and
mammals. Chaparral dominated by shrub live oak provides habitat for
the peccary, California brown bat, ringtail, whitetail deer, Cooper's
hawk, screech owl, many songbirds, canyon tree frog, leopard frog,
and Mexican garter snake [77]. In central Arizona, mountain
lion kills are sometimes hidden in shrub live oak
thickets [60]. Shrub live oak provides cover
during 1 or more seasons for wildlife in Utah as
follows [20]:
Pronghorn Fair
Elk Poor
Mule deer Good
Small mammals Good
Small nongame birds Good
Upland game birds Good
Waterfowl Poor
Shrub live oak is
rated as having "high potential" for erosion control and
for long-term revegetation projects, but it is of little value
in short-term revegetation [20].
Under laboratory conditions shrub live oak can be propagated
from softwood cuttings of stems with fully expanded leaves
[30]. Average successful rootings of up to 75% have been
attained under optimal conditions [15]. Best results were
obtained when cuttings were trimmed to 2 to 3 inches (5-8 cm)
and put in a rooting medium of 1:1 perlite to peat moss. Details on propagation by cuttings are available [15,30].
Exotic grass production increases in response to removal of shrub live
oak. On Arizona sites where shrub live oak was killed by
herbicides and weeping lovegrass (Eragrostis curvula)
seeded, the basal cover of weeping lovegrass was found to be inversely
proportional to oak cover. Where less than
50% of the shrub live oak cover was removed, the basal cover of
weeping lovegrass remained constant for
3 years, but where more than 50% of the basal cover was removed,
weeping lovegrass continued to increase during the 2nd and
3rd years [68].
Shrub live oak may be difficult to control with herbicides [69].
Repeated applications are often necessary [87]. Best results
have been reported if herbicides are applied when subsoil at
24 inches (60 cm) depth is moist or wet and when leaves are not
senescent or falling [37]. Specific details on the effects
of herbicides on shrub live oak are available
[8,11,31,36,37,87].
Shrub live oak is a clump-forming or clonal evergreen shrub
or less commonly a small tree
[81,84,94,101]. It typically grows from 3 to
8 feet (0.9-2 m) in height with stem diameters to 8 inches (20 cm)
[8,99,101]; however, it can reach 15 feet (5 m) or
more [8]. The somewhat leathery leaves
are 0.5 to 1.6 inches (1.3-4 cm) in length, 0.3 to 0.9 inch
(0.7-2.4 cm) in width [94,101]. Leaves persist through the winter [93]. Fruits
of shrub live oak are slender, annual acorns 0.5 to 1 inch
(1.3-2.5 cm) in length, with turbinate cups
[94].
Belowground structure: Root depths of over 25 feet (8 m) have been reported in parts of Arizona [81]. Roots and rhizomes may spread 16 feet (4.9 m) or more horizonally [16]. Shrub live oak forms colonies by sprouting from rhizomes [8,100]. Thousands of individual stems may form from a single or only a few individuals [8]. Davis and Pase [16] report "what appears to be a relatively open stand of shrub live oak aboveground, may actually be a relatively closed system"
of overlapping roots and rhizomes. The top foot of soil typically contains a
dense network of small surface laterals that aid in the
absorption of surface soil moisture. In
central Arizona, the greatest
accumulation of belowground biomass occurred in the top 2 feet (0.6 m)
of soil, with biomass decreasing with depth as follows [16]:
Shrub live oak reproduces through both sexual and vegetative
means.
Sexual reproduction: Shrub live oak produces small acorns which
usually germinate and establish from late July through
mid-September [8,93]. Germination
often occurs shortly after acorn maturation and coincides with the
summer rainy season [63]. Under laboratory
conditions germination capacity may reach 95% [61].
Acorn production is largely dependent on the
amount of precipitation received during the previous
winter [63]. Dry summers may inhibit or retard acorn
production [79,80]. In "good" years shrub live oak
produces an abundance of acorns [79]. Total acorn
failure, although rare, can occur [63,79]. Total crop
failures may occur when October-March precipitation is less than
15 inches (38 cm) [63]. Generally, good
crops are produced at 3- to 5-year intervals [61].
The vast majority of shrub live oak seedling mortality is
apparently attributable to drought. In an Arizona study,
seedling mortality during the first spring drought period
following germination was 53%. Mortality rates appeared to
decline by 3 years after germination [63].
Shrub live oak acorns do not require a ripening period and
frequently germinate while in storage. Shrub live
oak acorns are characterized by a short period of viability,
and seedbanking is unlikely. Pase [63] reports
"there is probably a negligible carryover of seeds from 1 year
to the next." Very few viable seeds remain 1 year after burial, due in large part to
predation by insects, birds, and mammals [63].
Acorns are dispersed by numerous birds and mammals which eat
and/or cache the acorns. Shrub live oak seeds tend to be
somewhat heavy, weighing an average of 0.046 to 0.053 ounce
(1.3-1.5 g) per seed [30], and are consequently not transported long
distances by most seed-dispersing animals. Scrub jays are particularly important
dispersal agents. These birds generally "plant" single acorns
at depths of 1.5 to 2 inches (4-5 cm), a few feet to a
hundred feet from the parent plant. Rodents more
often cache multiple seeds, which can germinate and produce
groups of 10 to 20 or more seedlings at a single location.
Seedling distribution indicates that, at least in
many of the central Arizona sites studied, scrub jays play
a much more significant role as dispersers than do
rodents [63].
Seedlings are rarely encountered in the field [8,79,63].
Successful establishment is thought to require 15 inches (38 cm) or
more of precipitation from October through March, followed
by 10 inches (25 cm) or more from July to September
[8,63]. These conditions are met in only 1
year out of 10 at many Arizona sites [63]. In laboratory
experiments seedling roots grew to a depth of 1 foot (30 cm)
prior to leaf development [16]. Plants only 12.9 inches (7.4 cm)
in height had roots that extended to 21 inches (53 cm)
in depth [8].
Vegetative reproduction: Shrub live oak tends to increase
more through rhizome sprouting than by seedling establishment [63,79].
Shrub live oak sprouts vigorously
after fire, application of herbicides, or mechanical treatment
[8,16,65,79,100,105].
Shrub live oak is particularly common on many
low winter ranges in southern Utah and Nevada and in
chaparral-desert grassland ecotones in Arizona [8,94].
Shrub live oak often grows in scattered patches in swales and
canyons [94].
Soil: Shrub live oak grows well on dry hillsides and mesas and
tolerates a wide range of soil types [94]. Growth is best on sandy
to clay loams [20]. Soils are often slightly acidic [16]. This
oak is not restricted to deep soils and can grow on shallow, broken
and fractured substrates [16,79]. Soils are typically coarse-textured
and poorly developed in shrub live oak chaparral [24].
In eastern Yavapai County in central Arizona, soils developed
from quartz diorite provide more
favorable moisture regimes than do heavy clay soils
developed from volcanics. In north-central Arizona, shrub
live oak growing on less favorable, drier, sedimentary and
volcanic substrates may be more susceptible to drought
damage. Where root penetration is
restricted, plants are more susceptible to damage from drought or
fire [79].
Climate: Shrub live oak is drought tolerant and typically
occupies drier and warmer sites than Gambel
oak [57,58]. In the northern part of its range, shrub live oak
often grows on warm, dry, southern exposures [21]. Arizona
chaparral is characterized by a biseasonal precipitation pattern with
summer and winter precipitation and spring and fall
droughts [16]. Annual precipitation averages 16 to 25
inches (410-640 mm) [24].
Elevation: Ranges of shrub live oak are as
follows [20,32,56,80,101]:
4,000 to 8,000 ft (1,220-1,525 m) in AZ
3,934 to 10,492 ft (1,200-2,000 m) in CA
2,689 to 5,607 ft (820-1,710 m) in UT
Shrub live oak may have climax or seral status. This long-lived
oak is considered to be an indicator of climax in parts of
Arizona and New Mexico [8,53]. During the 2nd and 3rd years
after fire in shrub live oak-dominated chaparral in Arizona,
forbs and grasses dominate. Shrubs,
including shrub live oak, assume prominence the 5th through
7th year after disturbance, although it may take more than
11 years for shrubs to reach preburn levels [8]. A typical
successional pathway in pinyon-juniper is as follows
[33]:
bare soil
annuals
perennial grasses and forbs
shrubs (including shrub live oak)
shrubs and open trees
climax pinyon-juniper
Pond [68] reports that weeping lovegrass dies out as the density
of shrub live oak increases.
Shrub live oak flowers from April through June. In Ventura
County, California, shrub live oak usually flowers in April
[89]. In Utah, flowering begins by April and ends by
May [20].
Shrub live oak acorns mature by the summer or early fall.
Acorns were present on shrub live oak from late August to early
September at 1 Arizona site [79]. Acorns often germinate during the
summer rainy period, with germination and emergence occurring from late
July to mid-September [63].
Shrub live oak is well adapted to survive fire. This oak typically
resprouts vigorously from the root crown and rhizomes in response to fire or
other types of disturbance [16,63,79,100,104,105].
Postfire establishment by seed also occurs. In central Arizona, seedlings
generally emerge in summer after the onset of summer
rain [65].
Fire regimes: In Arizona chaparral dominated by shrub live oak,
fire return intervals have been estimated at 74 to 100 years.
At least 20 years may be required before
these sites can reburn [8]. Childers and Piirto [10] note
that fire is a natural part of the ecosystem in southern
California communities in which shrub live oak occurs.
Minnich and Chou [52] report the following average fire
rotations in communities in which shrub live oak occurs:
southern California mixed chaparral - 59 years
northern Mexico mixed chaparral - 59 years
desert chaparral/pinyon-juniper woodland - 219 years
Shrub live oak is top-killed by fire [15,18]. The degree of damage
and subsequent mortality rate of shrub
live oak following fire depends largely on fire intensity
and severity, site characteristics that influence fuel
levels, and climatic factors [87]. On most sites, shrub live
oak is difficult to kill by burning [70].
Shrub live oak is more susceptible to fire-induced damage on
drier, unfavorable sedimentary or volcanic substrates than on more
favorable sites and
can occasionally be eliminated from these marginal
sites by fire. Evidence suggests that shrub live oak is especially difficult to
kill on soils with relatively favorable moisture
relationships [79,80].
Fires of high severity generally result in increased
mortality. Seedling survival tends to be higher following "light"
fires [8,79,80]. Survival of 1-year old shrub live oak seedlings
was as follows after fires in central Arizona chaparral [64]:
intense burn* light burn**
48% 91%
*leaves and twigs mostly consumed
**shrubs dead, but leaves and twigs mostly intact;
"largely a cool or ground fire"
A June wildfire in Arizona top-killed all shrub live oak present
on the site [18]. In many
areas annual burning may be necessary to
eliminate or significantly reduce shrub live oak. On
some Arizona chaparral sites at least 5 consecutive annual
burns were necessary to reduce stem numbers to below
pretreatment levels [70].
Shrub live oak typically sprouts from the root crown
and rhizomes following fire [8,16,79,80,100,104,105]. In Arizona chaparral
communities, shrub live
oak may be favored by repeated burning [75].
Although sprouting is apparently the most common form of
regeneration after fire, seedling establishment may also be
important. A "moderate population" of shrub
live oak seedlings was observed on Arizona chaparral burned
1 and 2 years earlier. Survival after 3 years was 26% with
most mortality attributable to drought [63]. Postfire seedling
emergence and survival after fall burning in Arizona chaparral site
were as follows [65]:
Recovery times after fire for shrub live oak range from 4 to 8
years or more
[87]. Cable [7] observed that shrub live oak had regained
preburn density within 5 years after fire in Arizona. After
an early fall prescribed burn in a shrub live oak-true mountain-mahogany
(Cercocarpus montanus) community in central Arizona, shrub
live oak exceeded pretreatment cover
within 5 years. Crown canopy over (%) of shrub live oak was as
follows [65]:
At a 2nd site in Arizona oak chaparral, shrub live oak began
revegetating the area within 4 to 6 years after burning, herbicide
treatment, and reseeding with Lehmann (Eragrostis lehmanniana) or
weeping lovegrass. However, more
than 8 years were required for complete recovery of shrub
live oak at this site [87].
Cover values (%) of shrub live oak 1 to 8 years after fire in 2 Arizona
studies were as follows:
1st study - based on line intercepts following June 1956 burn [8] -
1956 1957 1958 1960 1961
81.0 80.4 69.4 70.5 68.0
2nd study - crown cover by sites and treatments (all measured in 1963) [87] -
Unburned- Burned- Burned-
native reseeded* reseeded*-
herbicide
Treatment year
1955 site 21.8 16.8 ---
1956 site 29.6 25.5 3.8
1958 site 27.2 19.8 2.1
1959 site 18.4 13.8 ---
average 24.2 19.0 3.0
*seeded to Lehmann lovegrass and weeping lovegrass or a combination
In central Arizona chaparral
communities, shrub live oak response depended in part on frequency
of burning [70]. After the first 4 of 5 annual burns, stem
counts were still higher than pretreatment numbers and only
after the 5th burn did stem numbers drop below preburn levels. Burning at 2-year intervals failed to
reduce sprouting in shrub live oak. After
3 treatments at 2-year intervals, live stems still numbered
4.37 times the original number [71]. Results of this study follow [70]:
Davis and Dieterich [17] report "people experienced with
fire characteristics in Arizona oak chaparral have always
maintained that chaparral either burns fiercely or does not
burn at all." A critical rate of spread threshold has been
estimated at 20 feet per minute. For fire to spread,
conditions must be suitable for generating spread at or
above that rate. Minimum sustained spread of 1/4 mile per
hour (22 ft/min) has been reported in prescribed burns [17]. Details
are available on rate of spread in shrub live oak-dominated
chaparral [17].
Flammability of shrub live oak is increased by preheating which
may cause chemical changes. Detailed
information is available [88].
Prescribed fire: Prescribed fires have resulted in temporary
reduction of shrub live oak [65]. At some sites fuels are
sparse, and broadcast burning may nearly impossible [70]. Several
years may be needed for shrub live oak chaparral to produce enough fuel to carry a
fire. Ten to 20 years may be required for shrub live to reburn at
some sites [6,8]. Herbicides may be applied prior to prescribed
burning to increase flammability and kill the tops of shrub live oak without removing
litter [65]. In an Arizona study, late summer application of
'Dinoxol' (a mixture of 2 lbs/gallon (acid equivalent) of
the butoxyethanol esters of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T herbicides)
killed 80% of the leaves and twigs. Moisture content of
herbicide-killed leaves was 8 to 15% (oven-dry) compared with 85
to 97% for untreated leaves [65]. Shrub live oak leaves contain
approximately 6.2% volatiles [27]. Regressions have been
developed for foliar moisture of shrub live oak [48].
Grass production: The production of introduced perennial grasses may
increase following fire in shrub live oak communities. Productivity may be
increased for 5 to 7 years following fire. In an Arizona study,
comparative production values by treatment were as follows [87]:
Perennial grass production
Unburned- Burned- Burned-
native reseeded reseeded-
herbicide
1956 site 3 lb/acre ---- 280 lb/acre
1958 site 31 lb/acre 179 lb/acre 803 lb/acre
The grasses increased in the preceding study were seeded
exotics. Native grasses were scarce prior to burning and thus,
treatment did not produce increases in native grasses.
Grazing may have little impact on postburn cover of shrub live oak.
Pond and Cable [71] reported the following results after a 1951
fire in Arizona chaparral:
Shrub live oak cover (%)
grazed ungrazed
1952 20.40 18.46
1956 33.93 30.27
1958 36.37 31.04
Browse: Shrub live oak is fairly palatable to browsers while in the
early sprout stage. The value of shrub live oak to wildlife
is thus enhanced by burning [65].
Soils: Fire acts as a mineralizing agent quickly volatilizing the
litter and standing fuels of shrub live oak. These compounds
then condense within the soil and on the soil surface. Immediately
after a prescribed fire amounts of exchangeable ammonium and
extractable phosphorus in the soil increased under shrub
live oak [62].
The study site was covered by dense shrubby vegetation.
Crown cover averaged 75 to 80%. Dominant shrubs included pointleaf manzanita
(Arctostaphylos pungens), shrub live oak (Quercus turbinella,)
and mountain-mahogany (Cercocarpus betuloides). Subdominant species
included Emory oak (Q. emoryi), alligator juniper (Juniperus
deppeana), Apache plume (Fallugia paradoxa), and yerba-santa
(Eriodictyon angustifolium). The shrub stand was approximately 85
to 90 years old.
The burn occurred over a 2-day period: October
30th and 31st, 1985. The burn was described as "intense" with a rate of spread of 12 m min-1 and flame heights exceeding 4 meters. The fire was ignited with a helitorch.
The burn was described as "patchy." Specific conditions during the burn were as follows:
relative humidity: 10-30%
air temperature: 16-29oC
wind speed: 2-8 m s-1
fuel moisture of shrub live oak:
new growth - 72%
old growth - 61%
The prescribed fire consumed 65% of aboveground
dry matter on shrub live oak plants. Effect of fire on aboveground dry
biomass of shrub live oak was as follows:
Prescribed fire increased inorganic nitrogen in
the 0- to 2-cm soil layer under shrub live oak plants, mainly through increases
in ammonium concentration. Inorganic nitrogen in the 2- to 10-cm soil layer
did not change significantly. After fire, available phosphorus increased,
especially in the top 2 cm of soil.
Quercus turbinella: References
1. Arnold, Joseph F.; Jameson, Donald A.; Reid, Elbert H. 1964. The pinyon-juniper type of Arizona: effects of grazing, fire and tree control. Production Research Report No. 84. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 28 p. [353]
2. Bassett, R.; Larson, M.; Moir, W. 1987. Forest and woodland habitat types (plant associations) of Arizona south of the Mogollon Rim and southwestern New Mexico. 2nd Edition. Albuquerque, NM: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southwestern Region. [Pages unknown]. [20308]
3. Bernard, Stephen R.; Brown, Kenneth F. 1977. Distribution of mammals, reptiles, and amphibians by BLM physiographic regions and A.W. Kuchler's associations for the eleven western states. Tech. Note 301. Denver, CO: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. 169 p. [434]
4. Bissell, Harold D.; Strong, Helen. 1955. The crude protein variations in the browse diet of California deer. California Fish and Game. 41(2): 145-155. [10524]
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