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Wildlife, Animals, and Plants
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Introductory
SPECIES: Pinus palustris | Longleaf Pine
ABBREVIATION :
PINPAL
SYNONYMS :
Pinus australis Michx. f.
SCS PLANT CODE :
PIPA2
COMMON NAMES :
longleaf pine
longstraw pine
yellow pine
southern yellow pine
longleaf yellow pine
swamp pine
hard pine
heart pine
hill pine
pitch pine
Georgia pine
TAXONOMY :
The currently accepted scientific name of longleaf pine is Pinus
palustris Mill. [7,31]. There are no recognized varieties or subspecies.
Longleaf pine forms natural hybrids with loblolly pine (P. taeda) and
slash pine (P. elliottii), although the latter are rare [7,26].
LIFE FORM :
Tree
FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS :
No special status
OTHER STATUS :
Only a few old-growth stands of longleaf pine remain in the southeastern
United States [43]. Although longleaf pine is not an endangered
species, many endangered plant and animal species live in longleaf pine
communities. Longleaf pine communities are ranked as threatened by the
Texas Natural Heritage Program [9].
COMPILED BY AND DATE :
Jennifer H. Carey, May 1992
LAST REVISED BY AND DATE :
NO-ENTRY
AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION :
Carey, Jennifer H. 1992. Pinus palustris. In: Remainder of Citation
DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
SPECIES: Pinus palustris | Longleaf Pine
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION :
Longleaf pine occurs in the Atlantic and Gulf coastal plains from
southeastern Virginia to central Florida and west to eastern Texas. It
is found in the Piedmont Region and Valley-and-Ridge Province of Georgia
and Alabama [7,31].
ECOSYSTEMS :
FRES12 Longleaf - slash pine
FRES13 Loblolly - shortleaf pine
FRES14 Oak - pine
STATES :
AL FL GA HI LA MS NC SC TX VA
ADMINISTRATIVE UNITS :
BITH CAHA COSW CUIS GRSM HOBE
NATR
BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS :
NO-ENTRY
KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS :
K111 Oak - hickory - pine
K112 Southern mixed forest
K115 Sand pine scrub
K116 Subtropical pine forest
SAF COVER TYPES :
69 Sand pine
70 Longleaf pine
71 Longleaf pine - scrub oak
75 Shortleaf pine
81 Loblolly pine
82 Loblolly pine - hardwood
83 Longleaf pine - slash pine
84 Slash pine
111 South Florida slash pine
SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES :
NO-ENTRY
HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES :
The published classifications listing longleaf pine as a dominant or
codominant species in community types (cts) are presented below:
Area Classification Authority
e TX, LA, MS general veg. cts Bridges & Orzell
1989
AL forest cts Golden 1979
SC veg. cts Nelson 1986
se US; Gulf Coast general forest cts Pessin 1933
se US general forest cts Waggoner 1975
NC veg. cts Wells 1928
VALUE AND USE
SPECIES: Pinus palustris | Longleaf Pine
WOOD PRODUCTS VALUE :
Longleaf pine, a valued timber species, has clear, straight wood with
few defects [18]. It was used extensively in the past for timber and
ship building. Most virgin stands have now been harvested. Because
longleaf pine is not as easy to regenerate as other southern pine timber
species, it is not used as extensively as it once was. Longleaf pine's
highly desirable wood, however, has stimulated efforts to regenerate it
[7,18].
IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE :
Longleaf pine forests provide excellent habitat for bobwhite quail,
white-tailed deer, wild turkey, and fox squirrel. Sixty-eight species
of birds utilize longleaf pine forests [45]. Birds, and mice,
squirrels, and other small mammals eat the large seeds. Ants eat
germinating seeds, and razorback hogs eat the roots of seedlings [7,54].
Old-growth longleaf pine stands provide nesting habitat for the
endangered red-cockaded woodpecker [16].
PALATABILITY :
NO-ENTRY
NUTRITIONAL VALUE :
Longleaf pine seed is more than 25 percent protein and more than
0.05 percent phosphorus [47].
COVER VALUE :
NO-ENTRY
VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES :
Longleaf pine is recommended for reforestation of dry, infertile, deep
sands in the southeastern United States. Most of these sites were
formerly longleaf pine forests but were invaded by scrub oaks (Quercus
spp.) after timber harvesting [48]. Longleaf pine is of limited use for
rehabilitation of mine spoils in Alabama [50].
OTHER USES AND VALUES :
Longleaf pine's needles are used for mulch. Resin is used in the
naval stores industry for gum turpentine and rosin production [7].
MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
Longleaf pine communities are estimated to have once covered 59 to 87
million acres (24-35 million ha); now only 5 to 10 million acres (2-4
million ha) remain. Of that remaining, most is second growth and
in poor condition [40,41]. Because of its timber value and because longleaf
pine communities house many endangered plant and animal species, forest
managers are attempting to regenerate more longleaf pine communities.
Natural regeneration of longleaf pine is difficult because of poor seed
production, heavy seed predation by animals, poor seedling survival, and
slow seedling growth. Longleaf pine is best managed with even-aged
silviculture using a three-cut shelterwood system [2,5,18,25]. The
preparatory cut, 10 years before expected seed crop, should leave a
basal area of 60 to 70 square feet per acre (13.8-16.1 sq m/ha). The
remaining trees will develop larger crowns and increase seed production.
The seed cut, 5 years before the expected seed crop, should leave a
basal area of 30 square feet per acre (6.9 sq m/ha). The seedbed should
be prepared, usually with fire, when a good seed crop is evident from
large numbers of conelets. Seed trees should be removed 1 to 2 years
after seedlings are established and before height growth has been
initiated [5,25].
The group selection method can be used to naturally regenerate
uneven-aged stands. Up to 2 acres (0.8 ha) of trees should be cut so
discernible openings are created [2].
Methods for artificial regeneration of longleaf pine are detailed in
Rounsaville 1989 [45].
Disease and insects: Longleaf pine is highly resistant to most diseases
and insects that infect other southern pines. The main disease of
longleaf pine is brown-spot needle blight (Scirrhia acicola).
Defoliation suppresses and eventually kills grass-stage seedlings [7].
Infection of seedlings is less severe under a pine overstory than in the
open [4]. About 20 percent of seedlings are resistant to brown-spot
needle blight [17]. (See Fire Management).
Other diseases include pitch canker (Fusarium moniliforme var.
subglutinans), annosus root rot (Heterobasidion annosum), and cone rust
(Cronartium strobilinum). Insects that attack longleaf pine include
black turpentine beetle (Dendroctonus terebrans), bark beetles (Ips
spp.), and seed bugs (Tetyra bipunctata and leptoglossus corculus),
which can decimate a seed crop [7].
Predation: Despite fall germination, which minimizes the time seed lies
on the forest floor, predation by birds and small mammals can decimate a
seed crop [18].
Weather: Because of the fall germination, low winter temperatures can
damage cotyledons. March frosts can destroy flowers. Hurricanes,
tornadoes, and lightning cause local damage [7,18].
Other considerations: Moderate cattle grazing has no effect on longleaf
survival, but heavy grazing reduces young tree density by 20 percent
[54]. Hogs significantly reduce longleaf pine establishment and can
cause crop failure [30].
BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
SPECIES: Pinus palustris | Longleaf Pine
GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS :
Longleaf pine is a long-lived, native, evergreen conifer with scaly
bark. Needles are 8 to 18 inches (20-46 cm) long; cones are 6 to 8
inches (15-20 cm) long. Mature trees attain a height of 100 to 120 feet
(30.5-36.6 m) and have the potential of living 4 to 5 centuries. The
longleaf pine seed is the largest of all southern pines. On good sites,
longleaf pine grows an 8- to 12-foot-long (2.4-3.7 m) taproot and
extensive lateral roots [7,38,54].
RAUNKIAER LIFE FORM :
Phanerophyte (mesophanerophyte)
Phanerophyte (megaphanerophyte)
REGENERATION PROCESSES :
Seed production and dissemination: Longleaf pine is monoecious. It
begins producing cones when it reaches about 30 years of age or 10
inches (25 cm) in diameter [18,38]. The best cone producers are
15-inch-diameter (38 cm) open-grown trees. Cones contain, on average,
35 seeds [7]. Longleaf pine masts every 7 to 10 years, but healthy
trees will produce a fair to good seed crop every 3 to 4 years
[2,37,38]. The winged seeds are dispersed a short distance by wind with
71 percent of the seeds falling within 66 feet (20 m) of the base of the
parent tree [7].
Germination and seedling development: Seeds germinate 1 to 2 weeks
after seedfall. Germination is epigeal and requires mineral soil. The
seed's large size and persistent wing prevent it from penetrating
through the litter. Seedlings are stemless after one growing season and
this "grass-stage" lasts from 2 to many years [7,18,38]. It may last as
long as 20 years if brown-spot needle blight or competition is severe
[18,45]. During the grass-stage, the seedling develops an extensive
root system, and the root collar increases in diameter. When the root
collar diameter approaches 1 inch (2.5 cm) in diameter, height growth
begins. An open-grown seedling grows 10 feet (3 m) in 3 years once
height growth is initiated [7,37,54]. Branch production is delayed
until the seedling reaches 10 to 16 feet (3-5 m) in height [43].
Vegetative reproduction: If grass-stage seedlings are top-killed, they
can sprout from the root collar. Once height growth begins, sprouting
ability decreases rapidly [7].
SITE CHARACTERISTICS :
Longleaf pine grows in a warm, wet, temperate climate with an annual
precipitation of 43 to 69 inches (109-175 cm). The species occupies a
wide variety of upland and flatwood sites, but is most common on sandy,
infertile, well-drained soils. Soil types include Ultisols, Entisols,
and Spodosols. Elevations range from near sea level to 1,970 feet (600
m), although most longleaf pine grows below 660 feet (200 m) [7].
Associated hardwoods on mesic coastal plain sites include southern red
oak (Quercus falcata), blackjack oak (Q. marilandica), water oak (Q.
nigra), flowering dogwood (Cornus florida), blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica),
sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), persimmon (Diospyros virginiana) and
sassafras (Sassafras albidum). Associated hardwoods on xeric sandhill
sites include turkey oak (Q. laevis), bluejack oak (Q. incana), sand
post oak (Q. stellata var. margaretta), and live oak (Q. virginiana) [7].
Associated shrubs include gallberry (Ilex glabra), yaupon (I.
vomitoria), large gallberry (I. coriacea), southern bayberry (Myrica
cerifera), shining sumac (Rhus copallina), blueberry (Vaccinium spp.),
huckleberry (Gaylussacia spp.), blackberry (Rubus spp.), saw palmetto
(Serena repens), sweetbay (Magnolia virginiana), swamp cyrilla (Cyrilla
racemiflora), and buckwheat-tree (Cliftonia monophylla) [7].
In longleaf pine's western range, groundcover includes bluestem
(Andropogon spp.) and panicum (Panicum spp.). In its eastern range,
pineland threeawn or wiregrass (Aristida stricta) is the primary
groundcover [7].
SUCCESSIONAL STATUS :
Longleaf pine is intolerant of shade and competition. With frequent
fire, uneven-aged pure stands of longleaf pine form parklike savannahs
[7,20,37]. Because longleaf pine regenerates in openings created by the
death of mature trees, small clusters of trees of the same age are
dispersed throughout the stand [43]. In the absence of frequent fire,
longleaf pine is replaced by hardwoods and other southern pines [7,54].
Loblolly pine and shortleaf pine will invade and soon dominate a site of
grass-stage longleaf pine [11]. Recruitment of longleaf pine ceases 15
years after fire. Invasion by hardwoods accelerates the decline of
mature longleaf pine [24].
Longleaf pine is classified as a fire subclimax [18,19,20,45].
Lightning, which historically ignited the frequent fires, is a component
of a long-term climatic pattern. As long as there is lightning,
longleaf pine can perpetuate itself indefinitely on a site.
SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT :
Longleaf pine seed develops in a 3-year process. Strobili are initiated
during midsummer. Conelets emerge in late winter. Catkins emerge in
November, then remain dormant until late winter. Pollination occurs
from late February in the South to early April in the North.
Fertilization does not occur until the following spring. Cones reach
maturity in mid-September to mid-October after their second season of
growth. Seed is dispersed from late October to November and the
majority of seed falls in 2 to 3 weeks. Seed germinates 1 to 2 weeks
later. Primary needles appear soon after germination and secondary
needles about 2 months later [7,18].
FIRE ECOLOGY
SPECIES: Pinus palustris | Longleaf Pine
FIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS :
Longleaf pine is classified as fire-resistant [10,36]. It is ideally
suited to a high-frequency, low-severity surface fire regime. The
natural fire interval is every year to every 5 to 10 years [44]. Most
natural fires are caused by lightning and occur in late spring and
summer [37,44].
Longleaf pine has many adaptations to fire. The grass-stage seedling is
resistant to fire. If top-killed, it sprouts from the root collar.
Once the terminal bud develops, it is protected by a moist, dense tuft
of needles. As the tuft burns towards the bud from the needle tips,
water is vaporized. The steam reflects heat away from the bud and
extinguishes the fire [37,38]. The bud also has scales for protection
and a silvery pubescence that probably reflects heat [29,37].
During the grass-stage, the seedling invests heavily in a taproot and in
root collar size. When height growth is initiated, often the year after
a fire, the seedling uses its stored reserves to quickly grow a straight
stem with no branches. After one growing season, the terminal bud is
usually above the level of the next surface fire [37,38].
The bark becomes thick with age and insulates the cambium from heat.
The scaly bark dissipates heat by flaking off as it burns [37,38].
In addition to fire resistant adaptations, longleaf pine has a pyrogenic
strategy. Spring and summer fires are beneficial because they reduce
competition and expose the mineral soil necessary for seed germination
in the fall. Long, resin-filled needles have short persistence and form
a highly flammable, well-aerated litter. Resin is also concentrated in
the bole and roots of older trees and snags. These trees act as
lightning receptors. A smoldering tree can ignite the ground several
days or weeks later when the ground litter has dried out. Longleaf
pine communities often have a grass understory that readily ignites.
[28,37,43]. Because of open stands and high and open crowns, crown
fires are rare [43].
POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY :
Crown-stored residual colonizer; short-viability seed in on-site cones
off-site colonizer; seed carried by wind; postfire years one and two
FIRE EFFECTS
SPECIES: Pinus palustris | Longleaf Pine
IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT :
Open-grown grass-stage seedlings with root collar diameters smaller than
0.3 inch (0.8 cm) can be killed by light fire [7,29]. Under a pine
overstory, light fire can kill seedlings smaller than 0.5 inch (1.3 cm)
in diameter, because excess pine litter under the canopy makes the fire
hotter [3,18,44]. In a prescribed winter fire in Alabama, 1-year-old
seedlings with exposed root collars were more susceptible to fire than
seedlings with root collars at or near the soil surface [33]. Larger
grass-stage seedlings are highly resistant to fire.
In the height-growth stage, seedlings 1 to 3 feet (0.3-0.9 m) tall are
extremely vulnerable to fire [20,29]. If the terminal bud is destroyed,
the seedling will die [37]. Once a seedling is about 3.3 feet (1 m)
tall, it is likely to survive low-severity ground fires [38]. After the
sapling is 10 feet (3 m) tall, it is very fire tolerant [54]. Trees 10
inches (25 cm) in diameter and larger survive all but the most severe
fires [10]. A high-severity crown fire kills some mature trees and
nearly all trees smaller than 10 inches (25 cm) in diameter [20].
Longleaf pine needles were killed instantly when immersed in water at
147 degrees Fahrenheit (64 deg C) but survived 11 minutes at 126 degrees
Fahrenheit (52 deg C) [14].
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT :
NO-ENTRY
PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE :
Fire can stimulate height-growth initiation of grass-stage seedlings.
After three annual spring fires in Louisiana, most grass-stage seedlings
had initiated height growth. It is thought that height growth is
initiated because fire reduces competition and brown-spot needle blight
infection. Late spring or summer fires are more effective at promoting
height growth than winter fires [12,13,23]. However, annual fires begun
only 1 year after germination stunt height growth [20].
Once a seedling has entered the height-growth stage, fire damage can
decrease growth. Annual fires have reduced basal area growth of young
longleaf pine by 22 to 44 percent [54]. In Alabama, prescribed biennial
fires begun in 14-year-old stands averaging 22 feet (6.7 m) in height
and 3.2 inches (8.1 cm) in diameter reduced growth, even though no crown
scorch was observed. The impact on growth of biennial fires worsened
with time. The season of fire had no effect [6].
Older longleaf pine shows no growth loss if there is little or no needle
scorch [29]. Seed production of mature trees is not affected by
frequent fire.
Seed will germinate on mineral soil exposed by fire [7].
Trees in regularly burned stands develop a buttressed trunk which
results in stump taper [1].
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE :
NO-ENTRY
FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
Prescribed burning in longleaf pine stands is used to control brown-spot
needle blight, stimulate height growth, reduce excess fuel, control
understory hardwoods, improve wildlife habitat, thin stands, and prepare
a mineral seedbed [18,54].
Fire consumes foliage infected by brown-spot needle blight as well as
inoculum in fallen leaves [29,54]. Burning is recommended when
infection levels are greater than 20 percent and grass-stage root
collars are larger than 0.3 inches (0.8 cm) in diameter or height-growth
stage seedlings root collars are greater than 1.5 inches (3.8 cm). If
the infection rate is higher than 20 percent, a high percentage of
affected seedlings will die from the fire [18,35,45].
Annual spring fires are recommended to initiate height growth once
grass-stage seedlings are large enough to withstand fire. In the
spring, the green grass keeps the fire cool, and buds are protected by
long sheaths of needles. However, grass-stage seedlings grown on poor
sites may not tolerate light fire [12]. Once height growth begins, the
stand should not be burned for several years and then burned less
frequently [23].
Late annual spring fires are recommended to gain control of hardwoods.
Summer fires are also effective, but the risk of pine mortality is
increased [8]. Hardwoods are susceptible to fire in the late spring and
summer because root reserves are low. Once hardwood populations are
reduced, winter fire at 5-year intervals maintains longleaf pine stands,
and enables a single fire in the spring or summer before seedfall to
expose the necessary mineral soil seedbed [18,53].
Although longleaf pine regeneration is rarely excessive [2], a stand can
be thinned by fire. In Alabama, a prescribed winter fire thinned a
1-year-old stand from 177,000 seedlings per acre (437,000/ha) to 6,300
per acre (15,600/ha) [33].
Frequent late spring or early summer fires are necessary to recreate the
longleaf pine-grassland savannahs that were common in presettlement
times [44].
REFERENCES
SPECIES: Pinus palustris | Longleaf Pine
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Index
Related categories for Species: Pinus palustris
| Longleaf Pine
|
 |
