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Wildlife, Animals, and Plants
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Introductory
SPECIES: Pinus pungens | Table Mountain Pine
ABBREVIATION :
PINPUN
SYNONYMS :
NO-ENTRY
SCS PLANT CODE :
PIPU5
COMMON NAMES :
Table Mountain pine
hickory pine
mountain pine
prickly pine
TAXONOMY :
The currently accepted scientific name of Table Mountain pine is Pinus
pungens Lamb. [2]. There are no recognized varieties or subspecies.
Table Mountain pine hybridizes with pitch pine (P. rigida) and shortleaf
pine (P. echinata) [2,9].
LIFE FORM :
Tree
FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS :
No special status
OTHER STATUS :
NO-ENTRY
COMPILED BY AND DATE :
Jennifer H. Carey, March 1992
LAST REVISED BY AND DATE :
NO-ENTRY
AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION :
Carey, Jennifer H. 1992. Pinus pungens. In: Remainder of Citation
DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
SPECIES: Pinus pungens | Table Mountain Pine
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION :
Table Mountain pine is widespread in the Blue Ridge and
Valley-and-Ridge provinces of the Appalachian Mountains from central
Pennsylvania to northern Georgia. Outlying populations occur in
monadnocks of the Piedmont region [2,19].
ECOSYSTEMS :
FRES10 White - red - jack pine
FRES13 Loblolly - shortleaf pine
FRES14 Oak - pine
FRES15 Oak - hickory
STATES :
DE GA MD NJ NC PA SC TN VA WV
ADMINISTRATIVE UNITS :
BLRI CATO GRSM ROCR SHEN
BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS :
NO-ENTRY
KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS :
K104 Appalachian oak forest
K111 Oak - hickory - pine forest
SAF COVER TYPES :
44 Chestnut oak
45 Pitch pine
51 White pine - chestnut oak
75 Shortleaf pine
78 Virginia pine - oak
SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES :
NO-ENTRY
HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES :
Table Mountain pine is dominant in the climax Table Mountain pine-heath
community type [17]. The published classification listing Table
Mountain pine as a dominant species in community types (cts) is
presented below:
Area Classification Authority
NC: Smoky Mtns. forest veg. cts Whittaker 1956
VALUE AND USE
SPECIES: Pinus pungens | Table Mountain Pine
WOOD PRODUCTS VALUE :
Table Mountain pine is used for fuel, pulpwood, and low-grade saw
timber. The wood is invariably knotty because of large branches and the
persistence of branch stubs along the bole. There is good potential for
small saw timber in hardwood mixtures in the Blue Ridge Mountains
[2,9,21,22].
IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE :
Serotinous cones provide a year-round supply of seeds to squirrels. The
red squirrel cuts off branches to harvest the armored cones.
Frequently, a tree's entire cone crop is harvested in this fashion
[2,22].
PALATABILITY :
NO-ENTRY
NUTRITIONAL VALUE :
NO-ENTRY
COVER VALUE :
Table Mountain pine stands provide cover for wildlife.
VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES :
Table Mountain pine has great potential for revegetating dry, infertile
disturbed sites in the Appalachian Mountains [21]. Table Mountain pine
seedlings often constitute 80 percent of the reproduction on logged-over
areas [2].
OTHER USES AND VALUES :
One of Table Mountain pine's most important values is watershed
protection in steep terrain. The tree and associated understory
species minimize erosion and runoff by stabilizing the soil [2,9].
MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
Table Mountain pine can be regenerated best with even-aged management
[2].
Two serious diseases associated with Table Mountain pine are root rot
and heart rot. Phellinus pini, the fungus that causes heart rot,
usually enters the tree through fire scars or broken branches and is
most common in older trees. The southern pine beetle (Dendroctonus
frontalis) and the European pine sawfly (Neodiprion sertifer) attack
Table Mountain pine, as does Diorytria yatesi, a cone-boring insect,
which can destroy the entire seed crop [2,22].
Ozone is suspected of damaging Table Mountain pine in Great Smoky
Mountains National Park. Table Mountain pine shows an increasing
percentage of needle chlorosis with increasing ozone concentrations
[15].
BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
SPECIES: Pinus pungens | Table Mountain Pine
GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS :
Table Mountain pine is a small, native, evergreen conifer with large
branches. Individuals often have a gnarly appearance with crooked,
irregular trunks and flat tops [2,22]. Mature trees range in height
from 30 to 60 feet (9-18 m) and reach a maximum age of 250 years [9,22].
Trees in Great Smoky Mountains National Park are smaller and range in
height from 26 to 39 feet (8-12 m) [2]. Serotinous cones are heavily
armored with stout, hooked spines [2,13].
RAUNKIAER LIFE FORM :
Phanerophyte
REGENERATION PROCESSES :
Table Mountain pine is monoecious. The minimum seed-bearing age is 5
years [2,9].
Seed production and dissemination: Cones average 2.8 inches (7 cm) in
length, and vary from highly serotinous to nonserotinous. Cone size and
degree of serotiny decrease with increasing elevation [2,5,9,22].
Generally, less than 40 percent of 2-year-old cones open in the absence
of fire. Older cones may open without fire if they are exposed to
temperatures of 60 to 90 degrees Fahrenheit (16-32 deg C) for at least
30 days [2,5]. Without fire, serotinous cones may open in 8 to 10 years
in closed-canopy stands, and sooner in open-canopy stands [22].
Serotinous cones up to 10 years old have a high percentage of viable
seeds, and cones over 25 years old still contain some viable seeds [5].
The seeds are equipped with wings and are dispersed short distances by
wind. A large number of seeds are dispersed annually [2].
Seedling development: Seedling establishment is severely limited by the
availability of suitable seedling habitat. Germination is epigeal and
requires exposed soil [2]. Thick litter or heath impedes germination.
Thin pine litter decreases soil moisture loss and can aid seedling
establishment during summer droughts which cause significant seedling
mortality. Thin oak litter, however, serves as a mechanical barrier and
limits regeneration [20].
Seedlings are able to grow a long root and stem. The taproot is
generally anchored to a rock crevice while lateral roots spread through
the thin soil. Despite harsh conditions, Table Mountain pine seedling
growth is not constrained as much as other species in this environment.
Much of the growth goes into branch production rather than into height
or diameter growth [2,22].
Vegetative reproduction: Seedlings usually have a basal stem crook at
ground level. After a fire, basal buds protected against the mineral
soil by the crook can sprout [2].
SITE CHARACTERISTICS :
Table Mountain pine grows on xeric sites in rocky and shaly mountainous
areas of the Appalachians [2,11]. Table Mountain pine prefers the
southern and southwestern aspect of steep, exposed ridges [2,11,15,22].
Because Table Mountain pine is susceptible to frost, the species'
distribution is limited by low temperatures [22]. The common
elevational range is 1,000 to 4,000 feet (305-1,220 m), but individuals
have been found as high as 5,780 feet (1,762 m) and as low as 150 feet
(46 m) [2]. Table Mountain pine often occurs in isolated pockets [5].
Table Mountain pine grows where there is minimal soil development. The
soil is shallow, stony, acidic, excessively drained, and infertile
[2,7,15,22]. This species occurs in areas least favorable for rapid
plant growth. A individual may even occupy a crack in bedrock.
Excessive moisture does not hinder Table Mountain pine growth, but
competition with other species does [22].
In addition to those species mentioned in SAF Cover Types, overstory
associates in Table Mountain pine and Table Mountain pine-pitch pine
stands include red maple (Acer rubrum), blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica),
sourwood (Oxydendrum arboreum), American chestnut (Castanea dentata),
and black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia). Other overstory associates
include eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis), oak (Quercus spp.) and
hickory (Carya spp.) [2,17].
Common understory associates include rhododendron (Rhododendrum spp),
blueberry (Vaccinium spp.), black huckleberry (Gaylussacia bacata), bear
huckleberry (Gaylussacia ursina), mountain winterberry (Ilex montana),
hobblebush (Viburnum alnifolium), mapleleaf viburnum (V. acerfolium),
greenbrier (Smilax glauca and S. rotundifolia), fetterbush (Pieris
floribunda), white-alder (Clethra acuminata), and mountain laurel
(Kalmia latifolia). Bear oak (Quercus ilicifolia) is common at high
elevations and in the northern range of Table Mountain pine
[2,15,17,22].
SUCCESSIONAL STATUS :
Table Mountain pine is intolerant of shade and competition. It occurs
mainly in short-lived, even-aged stands that regenerate after fire. In
the absence of fire, Table Mountain pine is replaced by mixed oak or oak
dominated forests on sites suitable for hardwoods. Chestnut oak-scarlet
oak climax forest supplants Table Mountain pine on dry sites in the
southern Appalachian Mountains [2,6,18,19,22].
Whittaker [17] classified populations of Table Mountain pine on dry,
steep, rocky sites unsuitable for other competitors as edaphic climaxes.
Barden [1] found a population at Looking Glass Rock, a monadnock in
North Carolina, that had reproduced successfully without fire for almost
100 years.
SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT :
At low elevations, Table Mountain pine flowers in mid-March and begins
shedding pollen the last week in March. At high elevations, it flowers
in early April and begins shedding pollen by the second week. Cones
ripen in August of the second growing season, and generally seeds are
dispersed in the fall if cones open without fire [2,9]. Table Mountain
pine sheds pollen earlier than other pine species in the region, and it
also has the earliest growth of new needles [22].
FIRE ECOLOGY
SPECIES: Pinus pungens | Table Mountain Pine
FIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS :
Table Mountain pine is considered fire resistant [13]. Intermediate
bark thickness gives mature trees a low to moderate fire tolerance, but
populations survive as seeds after severe fires. The delayed seed
release from serotinous cones results in prolific reproduction following
a fire. Seedlings can survive low-intensity fires because the basal
stem crook protects buds from fire [11,13,22].
Table Mountain pine has a pyrogenic strategy. Dense stands with high
fuel loads in the crowns foster severe fires that expose the
mineral soil needed for germination, eliminate competing vegetation, and
release seeds from serotinous cones. The common even-aged stand
structure of Table Mountain pine is the result of fire. [5,7,11,22].
POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY :
crown-stored residual colonizer; long-viability seed in on-site cones
crown-stored residual colonizer; short-viability seed in on-site cones
off-site colonizer; seed carried by wind; postfire years 1 and 2
FIRE EFFECTS
SPECIES: Pinus pungens | Table Mountain Pine
IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT :
Table Mountain pine is killed by moderate to severe fires, especially if
fire reaches the crown [11,13]. Mature trees can survive low-severity
surface fires.
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT :
NO-ENTRY
PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE :
If fire exposes the mineral soil necessary for regeneration, seeds
released from serotinous cones will germinate, and seedlings will
establish in openings during the first postfire growing season [11,13].
Seedlings top-killed by low-severity fire may sprout from basal buds
[2,22].
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE :
NO-ENTRY
FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
Table Mountain pine is fire dependent, and prescribed burning is
necessary to maintain stands in areas where hardwoods grow [18]. In
areas unfavorable for other species, Table Mountain pine is able to
maintain a population without frequent fire and may have done so in the
southern Appalachians before human intervention [1]. Fires have
decreased in frequency since the early 1900's in Great Smoky Mountains
National Park. This decrease in frequency may be contributing to a
decline in Table Mountain pine on sites suitable for hardwood succession
[8].
A high-severity fire is necessary for significant reproduction of Table
Mountain pine. After a light fire, regeneration only persists in
openings created by the death of overstory trees [22]. Also, a
low-severity fire does not prepare an adequate seedbed [7]. A
high-severity fire destroys nutrient buildup and makes the site
unsuitable for some competitors [7].
In addition to facilitating reproduction, frequent fire perpetuates the
genetic diversity in stands of Table Mountain pine. Many Table Mountain
pine stands are isolated, and, in the absence of fire, lose genetic
diversity as individuals mature and die without reproducing [5].
REFERENCES
SPECIES: Pinus pungens | Table Mountain Pine
REFERENCES :
1. Barden, L. S. 1977. Self-maintaining populations of Pinus pungens Lam.
in the southern Appalachian Mountains. Castanea. 42: 316-323. [17652]
2. Della-Bianca, Lino. 1990. Pinus pungens Lamb. table mountain pine. In:
Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H., technical coordinators. Silvics
of North America. Volume 1. Conifers. Agric. Handb. 654. Washington, DC:
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 425-432. [13400]
3. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and
Canada. Washington, DC: Society of American Foresters. 148 p. [905]
4. Garrison, George A.; Bjugstad, Ardell J.; Duncan, Don A.; [and others].
1977. Vegetation and environmental features of forest and range
ecosystems. Agric. Handb. 475. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service. 68 p. [998]
5. Gibson, J. P., Hamrick, J. L. 1991. Genetic diversity and structure in
Pinus pungens (Table Mountain pine) populations. Canadian Journal of
Forest Research. 21: 635-642. [14587]
6. Grime, J. P. 1979. Plant strategies & vegetation proceses. Chichester,
England: John Wiley & Sons. 222 p. [2896]
7. Groeschl, David A.; Johnson, James E.; Smith, David Wm. 1991. Forest
soil characteristics following wildfire in the Shenandoah National Park,
Virginia. In: Nodvin, Stephen C.; Waldrop, Thomas A., eds. Fire and the
environment: ecological and cultural perspectives: Proceedings of an
international symposium; 1990 March 20-24; Knoxville, TN. Gen. Tech.
Rep. SE-69. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station: 129-137. [16643]
8. Harmon, Mark. 1982. Fire history of the westernmost portion of Great
Smoky Mountains National Park. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club.
109(1): 74-79. [9754]
9. Krugman, Stanley L.; Jenkinson, James L. 1974. Pinaceae--pine family.
In: Schopmeyer, C. S., technical coordinator. Seeds of woody plants in
the United States. Agric. Handb. 450. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service: 598-637. [1380]
10. Kuchler, A. W. 1964. Manual to accompany the map of potential vegetation
of the conterminous United States. Special Publication No. 36. New York:
American Geographical Society. 77 p. [1384]
11. Landers, J. Larry. 1991. Disturbance influences on pine traits in the
southeastern United States. In: Proceedings, 17th Tall Timbers fire
ecology conference; 1989 May 18-21; Tallahassee, FL. Tallahassee, FL:
Tall Timbers Research Station: 61-95. [17601]
12. Lyon, L. Jack; Stickney, Peter F. 1976. Early vegetal succession
following large northern Rocky Mountain wildfires. In: Proceedings, Tall
Timbers fire ecology conference and Intermountain Fire Research Council
fire and land management symposium; 1974 October 8-10; Missoula, MT. No.
14. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research Station: 355-373. [1496]
13. McCune, Bruce. 1988. Ecological diversity in North American pines.
American Journal of Botany. 75(3): 353-368. [5651]
14. Raunkiaer, C. 1934. The life forms of plants and statistical plant
geography. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 632 p. [2843]
15. Renfro, James R. 1989. Evaluating the effects of ozone on the plants of
Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Park Science. 9(4): 22-23. [9337]
16. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service. 1982.
National list of scientific plant names. Vol. 1. List of plant names.
SCS-TP-159. Washington, DC. 416 p. [11573]
17. Whittaker, R. H. 1956. Vegetation of the Great Smoky Mountains.
Ecological Monographs. 26(1): 1-79. [11108]
18. Williams, Charles E. 1991. Maintenance of the disturbance-dependent
Appalachian endemic, Pinus pungens, under low-disturbance regimes.
Natural Areas Journal. 11(3): 169-170. [15035]
19. Williams, Charles E.; Johnson, W. Carter. 1990. Age structure and the
maintenance of Pinus pungens in pine-oak forests of southwestern
Virginia. American Midland Naturalist. 124(1): 130-141. [12747]
20. Williams, Charles E.; Lipscomb, Mary V.; Johnson, W. Carter; Nilsen,
Erik T. 1990. Influence of leaf litter and soil moisture regime on early
establishment of Pinus pungens. American Midland Naturalist. 124(1):
142-152. [12589]
21. Zahner, Robert; Smalley, Glendon W. 1989. Site quality: the ecological
basis for pine-hardwood management decisions. In: Waldrop, Thomas A.,
ed. Proceedings of pine-hardwood mixtures: a symposium on management and
ecology of the type; 1989 April 18-19; Atlanta, GA. Gen. Tech. Rep.
SE-58. Asheville, SC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Southeastern Forest Experiment Station: 59-63. [10258]
22. Zobel, Donald B. 1969. Factors affecting the distribution of Pinus
pungens, an Appalachian endemic. Ecological Monographs. 39: 302-333.
[17651]
Index
Related categories for Species: Pinus pungens
| Table Mountain Pine
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