BIOLOGICAL DATA AND HABITAT REQUIREMENTS
WILDLIFE SPECIES: Alectoris chukar | Chukar 



TIMING OF MAJOR LIFE HISTORY EVENTS : 
Chukars exhibit altitudinal migration, moving from higher elevations to
lower terrain during heavy snows.  They may also move onto south-facing
slopes to escape inclement weather [3].

Chukars breed monogamously; pairing occurs from February to March or
April depending on latitude [3,13].  In New Mexico, nesting apparently
begins in April, with egg laying commencing in May; in Washington, the
average beginning date for egg laying is about April 20 [3].  Males
appear to defend females rather than territory [9]; this finding is in
dispute, however [17].  Males often desert the female after egg-laying;
in early fall males rejoin the brood during covey formation.  Coveys are
formed by one or more broods [3,9], often shortly after hatching [24].

Clutch:  Eggs are laid at a rate of one per day to one per 2 days [8].
Clutch size ranges from 10 to 20 eggs, with an average of 15 [12].
Clutch size is greatly reduced in drought years; in extreme drought,
breeding may not occur at all [3].  Double brooding (production of two
consecutive broods in one season) was reported from captive birds, and
is suspected to occur in wild birds [13].  Renesting following clutch
loss is normal [9].

Incubation:  The incubation period is typically 24 days.  The precocial
young leave the nest shortly after hatching [3,12,24].

Development:  Individual flight attempts are usually made by about 2
weeks of age and as early as 10 days after hatching [24], brood flights
(where the entire brood makes a flight together) occur by 3 weeks of
age, and by 4 weeks of age the chicks have formed flight habits similar
to those of adult chukars.  The brood and the adult female remain near
each other [3].


PREFERRED HABITAT : 
The chukar inhabits open, rocky, dry mountain slopes, hillsides, or
canyon walls from below sea level to 12,000 feet (3,660 m) elevation
[4].  Steep slopes appear to be preferred [12].  Slope grade is usually
over 7 percent with a rise of at least 200 feet (60 m) [7].  The chukar
is also found on open and flat deserts with sparse grasses and on barren
plateaus [4,16].  Nesting habitat is similar to foraging habitat:  dry,
rocky slopes with open, brushy cover.  In California, nesting chukars
and chukar broods are normally found within 2 miles (3.2 km) of water [3].


COVER REQUIREMENTS : 
Chukars use rocky slopes for shade and escape cover.  The hottest part
of the day is usually spent in shady cover [9].  They roost on the
ground beneath sagebrush or junipers and in the shelter of rock
outcrops.  They also roost in open rocky places; dense brush cover is
not required and is probably avoided [4].  Bohl [3] described chukar
roosting cover in New Mexico as follows:  (1) sides of bare rocks or on
the sides of mesas, halfway up or higher, among rocks, vegetation, or in
open, (2) on the ground in open grassy flats at the tops of mesas with
junipers or rocks within 15 feet (4.6 m), and (3) under junipers at the
tops of mesas.  Chukars roost in coveys, either scattered or in
tail-to-tail formations [3].

Nesting Cover:  Chukar nests are depressions scratched in the ground and
lined with leaves and feathers, usually well camouflaged under shrubs or
among rocks [3,4].


FOOD HABITS : 
During the breeding season, chukars feed in pairs.  For the rest of the
year feeding occurs in coveys, usually en route to watering areas [3].
Coveys are usually about 20 birds; infrequently as many as 40 or more
birds will form a covey [8].  Foraging occurs in early morning and late
afternoon [9].

In summer and fall the bulk of chukar diets is composed of cheatgrass
seeds [4,15].  Seeds of Russian-thistle (Salsola spp.), rough fiddleneck
(Amsinckia retrorsa), cutleaf filaree (Erodium cicutarium), Indian
ricegrass (Oryzopsis hymenoides), curly dock (Rumex crispus), wild onion
(Allium spp.) and mustards (Brassica spp.) are also consumed [4,7].
After autumn rains cause grasses to green up, chukars consume large
amounts of grass blades and basal shoots [3,24]; and the bulbs, stems,
leaves, and buds of a variety of plants including dandelion (Taraxacum
officinale), woodlandstar (Lithophragma spp.), and shepherd's purse
(Capsella bursa-pastoris) [4,8].  Serviceberry (Amelanchier spp.)  and
hawthorn (Crataegus spp.) fruits are consumed during summer.  A variety
of forb and shrub seeds or fruits are consumed during the winter [7].
Additional items reported for chukar diets in New Mexico include early
spring greens, alfalfa (Medicago spp.) leaves, seeds of Johnsongrass
(Sorghum halepense), grama (Bouteloua spp.), and other mountain grasses,
and skunkbush sumac (Rhus trilobata) fruits [3].  Chukars do not utilize
legume seeds to any great degree, but do consume leaves of alfalfa,
clover (Trifolium spp.), and sweetclover (Melilotus spp.) [7].  The diet
of young chukars includes a high proportion of insects; adult birds may
consume as much as 15 percent by volume.  Animal foods consist primarily
of grasshoppers, caterpillars, crickets, ants, and various insect eggs
[3,8,9].


PREDATORS : 
For healthy chukar populations in areas with adequate cover, losses to
predators are probably not significant.  In most areas, rodents,
cottontails (Silvilagus spp.), hares (Lagopus spp.), and small birds
outnumber chukars and thus receive higher predator pressure than chukars
[3].

Nest Predators:  Known predators of chukar nests include magpie (Pica
pica), ravens (Corvus spp.), and various ground predators including
gopher snake (Pituophis spp.) [24].

Predators of adult chukars may include coyote (Canis latrans), bobcat
(Lynx rufus), feral house cat (Felis spp.), gray fox (Urocyon
cinereoargenteus), skunks (Conepatus spp. and Mephites spp.), badger
(Taxidea taxus), raccoon (Procyon lotor), rock squirrel (Spermophilus
variegatus), ringtail (Bassiriscus astutus), mountain lion (Felis
concolor), coati (Nasua nasua), Mexican wolf (Canis lycaon), snakes,
golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), broad-winged hawk (Buteo platypterus),
prairie falcon (Falco mexicanus), sharp-shinned hawk (Accipiter
striatus), Cooper's hawk (Accipiter cooperii), great horned owl (Bubo
virginianus), peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus), northern goshawk
(Accipiter gentilis), Mexican goshawk (Asturina plagiata), zone-tailed
hawk (Buteo albonotatus), aplomodo falcon (Falco femoralis), and ravens
(Corvus spp.) [3].

The chukar is a popular game bird:  A harvest of over 600,000 birds in
one hunting season was estimated for the United States in a 1981
publication [12].


MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS : 
Chukar density is difficult to assess.  Density has been estimated to
range from one bird per 22.9 acres (9.2 ha) to one bird in just over 10
acres (4 ha).  In favorable habitat densities of more than one bird per 10
acres may occur.  Watering sites may attract up to 100 birds at a time
[7].

Recommended habitat for chukar introduction includes areas where up to
half the surface area consists of talus slopes, rocky outcrops, cliffs,
or bluffs.  The remainder of the area should be occupied by sagebrush
and grass, particularly cheatgrass, perennial wheatgrasses (Agroypron
spp. and Pseudoroegneria spicata), and bluegrasses (Poa spp.).  A water
source is a required habitat element:  Chukar populations tend to
concentrate near water in hot weather and disperse when vegetation
greens up after rain [3].  Where cheatgrass is the dominant herb, chukar
habitat can be improved by water development [23].  Leopold [11]
recommended predator control immediately after release; once birds are
dispersed no predator control is necessary.

The spread of medusahead (Taeniatherum caput-medusae) into cheatgrass
ranges has raised concern over its effect on chukars.  Feeding trials
established that chukars eat medusahead caryopses if nothing else is
offered, but that a sole diet of medusahead caryopses is debilitating
and probably fatal.  Germinated medusahead seeds and cheatgrass seeds
were preferred over feed pellets [15].


REFERENCES : 
NO-ENTRY

Related categories for Wildlife Species: Alectoris chukar | Chukar