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You are here >1Up Info > Wildlife, Animals, and Plants > Wildlife Species > Birds > Wildlife Species: Aquila chrysaetos | Golden Eagle
 

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BIOLOGICAL DATA AND HABITAT REQUIREMENTS

WILDLIFE SPECIES: Aquila chrysaetos | Golden Eagle
TIMING OF MAJOR LIFE HISTORY EVENTS : Age at sexual maturity - Golden eagles are sexually mature at 4 or more years of age [16]. Breeding season - The golden eagle breeding season generally occurs from mid-January to mid-September, but varies according to geographic area [22,27]. Clutch size and incubation - The golden eagle lays one to three eggs, with two eggs most common [9,21,27]. The eggs are incubated for 35 to 45 days [9]. Fledging - Nestlings fledge at 9 to 10 weeks and remain in the vicinity of the nest. The parents provide food for the fledglings until they are about 14 weeks old or older [9]. Migration - Migration varies with population and cohort and is a function of both food supply and climate. Golden eagles in the subarctic and at least some golden eagles of all ages in northern boreal areas migrate. They travel south along high ridges in the Intermountain West during September and October. In the East they traverse the ridges of the Appalachians to the southern highlands from September through November. In a zone near the United States-Canada boundary, resident breeders and older prebreeders migrate short distances in severe winters and/or when food is scarce [21]. In the mountainous West, golden eagles often move down from the mountains onto the plains and valleys during the winter [8]. Breeding golden eagles prefer to maintain their nesting-hunting territories or travel the shortest distance necessary to survive prolonged cold or heat, while older prebreeders may be less tied to specific locations. Birds of the youngest cohort are often migratory. In the arid Southwest, golden eagles move to high elevations after breeding [21]. Longevity - Golden eagles in captivity have lived 41 to 48 years, but it is unlikely that many live that long in the wild [9]. PREFERRED HABITAT : The golden eagle inhabits open country from barren areas to open coniferous forests. They are primarily in hilly and mountainous regions, but also in rugged deserts, on the plains, and in tundra. The golden eagle prefers cliffs and large trees with large horizontal branches and for roosting and perching [8]. Nesting habitat - The golden eagle nests on cliff ledges, preferably overlooking grasslands; 10 to 100 feet (3-30 m) above ground in dead or live trees; in artifical structures; or on the ground [8,7,27]. In western mountains, golden eagles nest at elevations of 4,000 to 10,000 feet (1,219-3,048 m). Pairs may use the same nest year after year or use alternate nests in successive years [8]. Golden eagles are most likely to use trees for nesting if cliff sites are unavailable. In the Powder River Basin of Wyoming, 67 percent of golden eagle nests were found in deciduous trees; 22 percent in ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa); and 4 percent on the ground [19]. Near Medicine Bow, Wyoming, 60 percent of golden eagle nests were on cliffs [17]. In Campbell and Converse counties, Wyoming, 57 percent of occupied nests were found in deciduous trees along drainages and 25 percent were in ponderosa pine trees. The remaining nests were on rock outcrops and peaks (8%), artifical structures (7%), and creekbanks (3%). In Campbell and Converse counties golden eagles preferred to nest in large pines when both cottonwoods and pines were available. Large dense stands of both cottonwoods and pines were avoided as nest areas. Isolated or scattered trees were preferred [22]. In the Coast Ranges of California, the golden eagle nests almost exclusively in trees [21]. Foraging habitat - The golden eagle generally forages in open habitats where rabbits and small rodents are available. During the nesting season the golden eagle usually forages within 4.4 miles (7 km) of the nest [7]. Trees, live or dead, are often used for perches if they are near open areas where prey can be easily seen [30]. Winter habitat - Winter habitat requirements for the golden eagle are very similar to nesting habitat requirements. In the East the golden eagle generally winters on coastal plains and wetlands [7]. COVER REQUIREMENTS : Golden eagles use elevated nest sites, especially sheltered ledges on secluded cliffs, that are isolated from human disturbance and are close to hunting areas [8,24]. Golden eagles are most efficient predators in open areas where winds and thermal updrafts aid flying. They are less efficient where shrub and/or tree cover increases. Abundant shrub cover provides hiding and escape cover for prey. Physical obstructions close to the ground make hunting difficult [18]. FOOD HABITS : The golden eagle feeds primarily on mammals. It feeds mainly on lagomorphs and small rodents, but also on marmots (Marmota spp.), prairie dogs (Cynomys spp.), ground squirrels (Spermophilus spp.), weasels (Mustela spp.), woodrats (Neotoma spp.), skunks, mice, and rarely, large mammals. The golden eagle also eats grouse, pheasants (Phasianus spp.), owls, hawks, rock dove (Columba livia), magpies (Pica spp.), and other birds as well as rattlesnakes, frogs, carrion, and occasionally, fish [4,8,9,21,27]. PREDATORS : NO-ENTRY MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS : Direct and indirect human-caused mortality, disturbance, and the elimination of prey by habitat alteration are the main factors limiting golden eagle populations [28]. Shooting, poisoning, trapping, electrocution and/or collision with powerlines, and pesticide contamination have all been identified as causes of the decline of golden eagle populations. In addition, recreational activities may disturb breeding, wintering, and migration activities, disrupting and often reducing the population [9]. Habitat management for the golden eagle primarily consists of protecting areas used for nesting, resting, and foraging, and protecting habitat used by the prey base [9]. Some researchers suggest placing 0.25- to 2-mile (0.4-3.2 km) buffer zones around nest sites in areas undergoing energy development or increased recreational use. Nest-site protection is only advantageous if the prey base remains adequate following development. Many types of development such as oil, gas, and geothermal exploration; pipeline and road construction; and development of campgrounds and interpretive facilities on public lands remove vegetation from small areas. If important prey concentrations such as ground squirrel colonies are avoided, golden eagles should be able to coexist with these developments provided nest sites are undisturbed [25]. Nesting habitat can be enhanced by providing artifical nest structures in areas where natural nesting sites have been eliminated. Population enhancement through captive breeding, foster parenting, and rehabilitation and reintroduction are feasible techniques where suitable habitat for golden eagles is unoccupied [9]. Golden eagles are sensitive to human disturbance and are likely to abandon their nests during the incubation period if disturbed [9,21]. Human disturbance was responsible for 85 percent of golden eagle nesting failures along the Front Range of the Rockies in Wyoming, Colorado, and in New Mexico [21]. Placing seasonal restrictions on recreational activities and limiting human access in nesting areas can minimize the chance of disturbance [5,9]. Some current laws have reduced human-caused hazards to golden eagles. As of February 1972, use of poisons on public lands has been banned by Executive Order. Some animal trapping groups have established policies against placing leg-hold traps near open bait, and some states have laws prohibiting open bait trapping [9]. The problem of golden eagles being electrocuted by powerlines has been greatly reduced during the past decade through cooperative efforts of government agencies, conservation organizations, and the electric industry. This cooperation is now being extended into positive golden eagle habitat management by power companies [20]. Golden eagles are very susceptible to organochlorine pesticides and many other environmental contaminants. Since jackrabbits and other herbivores eaten by golden eagles accumulate low pesticide levels, golden eagles accumulate higher levels via food-chain concentration. Another major threat to golden eagle populations is lead toxicosis, which has been identified as a cause of golden eagle deaths. A preliminary study of a population in southern California reported that 26 of 66 golden eagles (39%) had blood lead levels greater than 0.2 ppm, indicating exposure to environmental lead [13]. Serious golden eagle depredation of livestock is usually infrequent and localized; however, livestock predation has sometimes become a problem for ranchers [18]. While a potential problem may occur anywhere golden eagles and livestock coexist, depredation is most severe on lambs in open range, most notably in Montana and New Mexico. Because golden eagles are protected under federal law, options for damage control efforts are limited and highly restricted [23]. In other areas, such as California, golden eagle depredation of livestock appears minor [13]. Some researchers suggest that golden eagles are beneficial to livestock interests because a large percentage of their diet is made up of rabbits, which compete with livestock for forage. Eight to twelve jackrabbits consume enough forage to support one sheep. The number of rabbits and rodents killed by golden eagles translates into a sizeable quantity of forage [18]. REFERENCES : NO-ENTRY

Related categories for Wildlife Species: Aquila chrysaetos | Golden Eagle

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