BIOLOGICAL DATA AND HABITAT REQUIREMENTS
WILDLIFE SPECIES: Felis concolor | Mountain Lion 



TIMING OF MAJOR LIFE HISTORY EVENTS : 
Breeding season - Mountain lions are polygamous.  They are capable of
breeding throughout the year, and successful litters can be produced any
month of the year [56].  However, there is generally a peak in litter
production during the summer [1,56].  The estrous cycle lasts
approximately 23 days, with estrus usually lasting 8 days.  However,
periods of estrus lasting up to 11 days have been reported [56].
Mountain lions are generally solitary except during the breeding season
and when the female is raising young [10].

The breeding season of Florida panthers starts in October and continues
through April, with the majority of conceptions occurring from November
to March.  Over half of the births occurring during the period form
April through August [3].

Age at sexual maturity - Mountain lions first breed when they are 2 to 3
years old [10,56,51].  Females born during the summer generally first
breed during the winter following their second birthday [20,56].
Females usually do not breed until they have established a home range
[20].  The earliest published instance of first reproduction in the
Florida panther was an 18- to 19-month-old female that raised four
kittens in her mother's home range.  Male Florida panthers appear to
reach sexual maturity after 3 years of age [3].
 
Gestation and litter size - Following a gestation period of 82 to 98
days (90-98 days for Florida panthers), a litter of one to six young is
produced, with a mean of 2.67 [1,3,10,20,30].  Florida panther litter
sizes range from one to four kittens [3].  Female mountain lions may
produce only one kitten in their first litter [30].  A litter may be
produced every year under "optimal conditions" [56], but usually one
litter is produced every other year or at 3-year intervals [3,56].  If
the female loses her kittens to predators or other circumstances, she
may breed again soon after the loss [20].

Growth of young - Kittens begin nursing within minutes after birth and
gain weight rapidly.  Males usually grow faster than females.  At 2
weeks of age, eyes and ears are open, and kittens are able to walk.  In
10 to 20 days kittens may weigh over 2 pounds.  The female leads kittens
to kills when they are 7 to 8 weeks old [20].  The kittens are weaned
when they are 2 to 3 months old.  Kittens can survive on their own at 6
months of age, but they typically remain with their mother until they
are 1 to 2 years old [1,20,30,56].  Siblings sometimes disperse as a
group and may remain together for 3 months or longer [37].

Longevity - The maximum longevity of wild mountain lions is unknown.
Once established on home ranges, mountain lions may live 12 to 13 years
[12,37].  There is evidence of a 15- to 18-year life span in the wild
for Florida panthers, but 8 to 12 years is considered old [3].  Three
captive male mountain lions lived at least 12, 15, and 18 years, and one
female lived at least 10 years.  A 9-year average and a 20-year maximum
lifespan have been reported for captive mountain lions [1,12].



PREFERRED HABITAT : 
Mountain lion habitat is essentially the same as that of their primary
prey.  Within this habitat, mountain lions tend to prefer rocky cliffs,
ledges, vegetated ridgetops, or other areas that provide cover for
undetected surveillance of prey [46,56].  Stream courses and ridgetops
are frequently used as travel corridors and hunting routes.  Riparian
vegetation along streams provides cover for mountain lions traveling in
open areas [46]. 

Florida panthers generally inhabit ecotones and subtropical, dense
forests in low-lying swampy areas composed mainly of trees, shrubs, and
vines.  They also occur in pine forests [20,53].  In Everglades National
Park, edge habitat provides good forage and cover for white-tailed deer
(Odocoileus virginianus), which in turn may attract Florida panthers
[20].

In the Frank Church River of No Return Wilderness, Idaho, mountain lions
preferred steep, rocky areas covered with "dense" Douglas-fir and
ponderosa pine mixed with sagebrush and grassland.  Mountain lions
avoided crossing large open areas with sparse cover, preferring to
travel around perimeters [20,43].  In the Bighorn Mountains of northern
Wyoming, mountain lions frequented canyons with steep, rugged slopes (>
45 deg).  Areas with gentle slopes (< 20 deg) were generally avoided
[31].

Den sites - In rough terrain mountain lion dens are usually located in a
shallow nook on the face of a cliff or rock outcrop.  In less
mountainous areas dens are located in dense thickets or under fallen
logs.  Little bedding is used in dens.  Females may use the same den for
several years [56].  A radio-collared female Florida panther chose the
same large sawpalmetto thicket surrounded by hammock and freshwater
marsh for her den in 1986 and 1988 [34].

Home range - The home range consists of a first-order home area, used
primarily for resting, and a much larger area used for hunting [56].
Home ranges are maintained by resident mountain lions but not transient
mountain lions [56].  Mountain lions are capable of covering large
distances in short periods of time [30].

Home range size varies by sex and age of the mountain lion, season, and
spatial distribution and density of prey [20,30,43,56].  Home ranges as
large as 196 square miles (510 sq. km) and as small as 25 square miles
(65 sq. km) have been reported.  Resident male mountain lion home ranges
are typically larger than those of females and overlap a number of
female home ranges, but only occasionally overlap those of other
resident males.  Mean home range for resident male Florida panthers is
between 168 and 196 square miles (437-510 sq. km); for resident females
it is between 68 and 74 square miles (177-192 sq. km) [34].  Home ranges
of resident females commonly overlap, but females avoid each other in
the areas of overlap [20,30,56].  Female mountain lions probably select
areas with relatively high prey densities.  Male home ranges may reflect
the density and distribution of females [34].

Mountain lions move from summer range to winter range in areas where
their main prey congregates during the winter [10,30,37].  The smallest
documented home ranges appear to occur in areas where deer (Odocoileus
spp.) do not exhibit seasonal movements [30].  Seasonal and sex
differences in home range size were reported by Seidensticker and others
[43] on the Frank Church River of No Return Wilderness.


COVER REQUIREMENTS : 
Stalking cover - The best stalking cover for mountain lions is thick
enough for mountain lions to remain hidden, and sparse enough for them
to see their prey [20].  Mountain lions commonly use terrain such as
steep canyons, rock outcroppings, and boulders, or vegetation such as
dense brush and thickets to remain hidden while stalking [3,20].

Protective cover - Dense vegetation or piles of boulders are often
selected as den sites to help protect kittens from harsh weather and
predators [20,32].


FOOD HABITS : 
In North America mountain lions feed primarily on large ungulate
species.  Small mammals are also eaten depending on local abundance
[10,20,34,56].  Occasionally, grass and carrion are eaten [1].  The main
prey seems to be a function of abundance [10,12].  Composition of the
diet may shift seasonally, reflecting the adundance and availability of
small prey and the dispersion of large prey such as deer and elk (Cervus
elaphus) [30].

Deer dominate the diet of mountain lions in most areas [30].  In the
western United States, mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) are the major
prey species.  Other prey species include white-tailed deer, elk, moose
(Alces alces), bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis), porcupines (Erthizon
dorsatum), American beavers (Castor canadensis), snowshoe hares (Lepus
californicus), ground squirrels (Citellus spp.), marmots (Marmota spp.),
smaller rodents (Rodentia), other carnivores, and domestic livestock
[9,30].  Porcupines are a preferred food item wherever they occur in
mountain lion range [56].  In most temperate regions, small mammals
represent a minor part of the diet and probably are taken
opportunistically.
 
In British Columbia moose comprised a large portion of diet of mountain
lions, as did snowshoe hares during a peak snowshoe hare population
[56].  In the Cascade Range of Oregon, black-tailed deer (Odocoileus
hemionus columbianus) were the most important prey item in the mountain
lion diet.  Domestic sheep (Ovis aries), porcupines, and a variety of
small mammals were also recorded [48].  In the southwestern United
States, collared peccary (Pecari angulatus) can be an important part of
the mountain lion diet [56].
  
In Florida, Florida panthers commonly prey on feral pigs (Sus scrofa),
raccoons (Procyon lotor), and nine-banded armadillos (Dasypus
novemcinctus) in addition to white-tailed deer [16,32,34].  In
southwestern Florida from 1977 through 1989, 270 scat samples indicated
that feral pigs were the most common prey species followed by
white-tailed deer, raccoons, and armadillos [32].  The most important
food items, based on contents of six Florida panther stomachs, were
armadillos and white-tailed deer.  All of the stomachs also contained 3
to 8 grams of grass.  Another study in southern Florida found
white-tailed deer in 46 percent of Florida panther scat, rabbits
(Sylvilagus spp.) in 31 percent, cotton rats (Sigmodon hispidus) in 20
percent, feral pigs in 15 percent, raccoons in 11 percent, armadillos in
7 percent, and birds (Aves) in 3 percent [5].


PREDATORS : 
Biologists working near the North Fork of the Flathead River, Montana,
have reported gray wolves (Canis lupus) killing mountain lions as well
as driving them from prey [37].  Adult male mountain lions are known to
kill mountain lion kittens and sometimes eat them [12,30,56].  Adult
female mountain lions are occasionally killed by other mountain lions
[30].


MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS : 
Hunting - One of the largest causes of mountain lion mortality is
hunting [56].  Currently almost all states and provinces that support
viable mountain lion populations provide sport hunting opportunities.
Season lengths range from 1 month to year-round and often vary within a
jurisdiction [30].  Most states allow hunters to kill only one mountain
lion per season, with the exception of Texas, which places no limit on
the number of mountain lions a hunter can take [20].  In California
mountain lion hunting has been banned since 1990 [37].

Accidents - Road-killed mountain lions comprise the largest number of
accidental deaths [12,20,56].  Collisions with motor vehicles are the
primary cause of death of Florida panthers.  From 1979 to 1991, almost
50 percent of the documented mortalities of Florida panthers were
road-kills [20].  Drownings in drainage canals in California have been
reported [12,56].

Habitat loss - Loss of habitat is probably the greatest threat to
mountain lion populations.  Not only are large tracts of habitat
necessary to maintain individual populations of mountain lions, but
corridors that connect these tracts are required for dispersal of
mountain lions between populations.  Any permanent loss of habitat,
especially deer and elk winter range in the West and white-tailed deer
and feral pig habitat in Florida, may cause a reduction in the mountain
lion population [20,34,56].  Habitat acquisition, enhancement,
restoration, and protection are fundamental to survival of all mountain
lion subspecies [20].  Specific recommendations for managing mountain
lion habitat in North America have been described by Hansen [20].

The long-term survival of mountain lions depends in part on the
availability of large tracts of roadless habitats [21].  Roads increase
human access to mountain lion habitat, thus increasing mountain lion
vulnerability to hunters.  Mountain lions tend to avoid roaded areas.
In Arizona mountain lions crossed hard-surfaced roads and maintained
dirt roads less frequently than smaller dirt roads, suggesting that they
may select against areas with maintained roads [50].

Areas that are disturbed by habitat alteration associated with human
activities or by permanent human presence appear to be less acceptable
to mountain lions than undisturbed areas.  Mountain lion reactions to
logging and other human activities were studied in northern Arizona from
1976 to 1980 and in south-central Utah from 1979 to 1982.  Resident
males on both study areas generally inhabited areas that were relatively
free of human disturbance.  They were rarely found in or near (within 1
km) sites that had been logged within the past 6 years [50].
Development related to oil exploration has been extensive in occupied
Florida panther habitat.  The construction of roads, pads, and
associated petroleum production activities has changed some areas, but
the effects on Florida panthers are difficult to measure [34].

Florida panthers are found only in one small part of its original
range.  Its decline has resulted primarily from habitat lost to
expanding urbanization and agriculture.  Continued habitat loss and
fragmentation may cause extinction of this subspecies.  However, where
pasture or vegetable crops exist in a mosaic of forest cover, Florida
panthers may persist.  Interspersion of forested and early successional
habitats seems to benefit Florida panther prey [34].

Intensive efforts to protect Florida panther habitat on private lands
are essential for its survival.  About half of the presently known
Florida panther range in southern Florida occurs on private lands where
agricultural and urban development are increasing rapidly [33].  Acreage
devoted to citrus production in prime Florida panther habitat has
increased by approximately 400 percent in Collier and Hendry counties
during the last 20 years.  The human population in Collier County was
the fastest growing in the nation in 1992 [34].

Another threat to the survival of Florida panthers is low genetic
diversity which has resulted in reproductive disorders within the
population.  Abnormal sperm comprised over 94 percent of the total sperm
count in the semen analysis of six Florida panthers [22].  Genetic
studies are continuing to address specific questions regarding the
long-term reproductive viabiltiy of remaining populations and the
feasibility for enhancement of their survivability through selective
introduciton of genetic material from Texas panthers [6].  

A progam to reintroduce Florida panthers into "suitable" habitat in
Florida is underway.  A captive male Florida panther and three female
Texas panthers are being breed in initial breeding trials.  Any
offspring produced between these two subspecies will be sterilized and
released into suitable unoccupied habitat in Florida as "surrogates" to
determine the survivability of captive-bred mountain lions [6,22].
After a 1-year evaluation of the surrogate groups' response to their
habitat as well as the public's response to their presence, these
mountain lions will be removed from the wild.  Pure Florida panthers
will then be released into these areas if, based upon the results of the
surrogates study, it appears feasible [22].

Depredations by mountain lions - Mountain lions sometimes kill livestock
and are hunted to prevent further depredations [30,56].  Cattle losses
are most common in southwestern states.  Sheep losses may occur in any
area occupied by mountain lions [30].  Evidence suggests that predation
on livestock is opportunistic rather than habitual.  None of the
mountain lions captured and released following depredations in
California were involved in further incidents of depredation [56].


REFERENCES : 
NO-ENTRY

Related categories for Wildlife Species: Felis concolor | Mountain Lion