• ABBREVIATION
• SYNONYMS
• NRCS PLANT CODE
• COMMON NAMES
• TAXONOMY
• LIFE FORM
• FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS
• OTHER STATUS
• AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION

ABBREVIATION:

SYNONYMS:

NRCS PLANT CODE [321]:

COMMON NAMES:

TAXONOMY:

Acer glabrum var. diffusum (Greene) Smiley [136,155,328]
Acer glabrum var. douglasii (Hook.) Dippel [137,155]
Acer glabrum var. glabrum Torr. [137,155,203,328]
Acer glabrum var. greenei Keller [136,155]
Acer glabrum var. neomexicanum (Greene) Kearney & Peebles [155,203,328]
Acer glabrum var. torreyi (Greene) Smiley [136,155]

LIFE FORM:

FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS:

OTHER STATUS:

AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION:

• GENERAL DISTRIBUTION
• ECOSYSTEMS
• STATES
• BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS
• KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS
• SAF COVER TYPES
• SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES
• HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION:

ECOSYSTEMS [106]:

STATES:

BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS [39]:

KUCHLER [170] PLANT ASSOCIATIONS:

SAF COVER TYPES [94]:

SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES [283]:

HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES:

Common Plant Associates:
Rocky Mountain maple is found with a variety of tree species throughout its range, including white fir (Abies concolor) [27,28,32,73,81,82,104,177,192,227,228,236,261,278,330,336], subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa) [43,73,91,177,228,236,261,282,288,307,330,336], alder (Alnus spp.) [32,75,95,166,191,298,330], birch (Betula spp.) [239,265], common juniper (Juniperus communis) [8,73,95,205], Rocky Mountain juniper (Juniperus scopulorum) [271], western juniper (Juniperus occidentalis) [223], Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii) [81,91,177,236,261,278,282,288,307,330], lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) [16,34,37,71,91,169,200,282], limber pine (Pinus flexilis) [71,209], ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) [16,71,113,143,153,187,200,231,330], cottonwood (Populus spp.) [32,166,191], quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides) [31,32,35,71,166,168,259,261,307,325,336], Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) [71,91,121,177,194,227,228,252,261,278,282,288,319,325,329,330], oak (Quercus spp.) [40,261,336], and willow (Salix spp.) [15,32,81,95,166,177,194,210,236,298,307,319].

Several shrub species are commonly found with Rocky Mountain maple throughout its range, including bigtooth maple (Acer grandidentatum) [40,205,228,330], Saskatoon serviceberry (Amelanchier alnifolia) [16,35,49,71,81,82,91,95,166,177,194,210,228,233,284,319,325,336], bearberry (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi) [70,82], red-osier dogwood (Cornus sericea) [48,90,210,298], oceanspray (Holodiscus discolor) [49,236,261,278,319], Utah honeysuckle (Lonicera utahensis) [91,236,257,336], Oregon-grape (Mahonia repens) [8,70,71,81,82,177,319], Oregon boxwood (Paxistima myrsinites) [71,81,82,177,264,284,333], ninebark (Physocarpus malvaceus) [49,71,233,236,319,336], chokecherry (Prunus virginiana) [16,35,71,166,269,319,325,336], Gambel oak (Quercus gambelii) [3,40,95,168,307], currant/gooseberry (Ribes spp.) [8,29,194,278,284], rose (Rosa spp.) [70,71,107,166,257,284], thimbleberry (Rubus parviflorus) [82,91,135,236,264,284], red elderberry (Sambucus racemosa) [16,166,210,233,236], russet buffaloberry (Shepherdia canadensis) [91,134,209,336], common snowberry (Symphoricarpos albus) [49,92,134,233,257,269,319], and mountain snowberry (Symphoricarpos oreophilus) [8,70,81,82,177,236,271].

Associated species (northern):
Rocky Mountain maple occurs commonly with several species in the northern portion of its distribution (Alaska south to northern California, Nevada, and Utah). Associated tree species include Pacific silver fir (Abies amabilis) [27,34,101,161], grand fir (Abies grandis) [96,121,143,148,149,252,260,264,306,333], California red fir (Abies magnifica) [14,26,27,244], vine maple (Acer circinatum) [164,210], bigleaf maple (Acer macrophyllum) [69], Sitka alder (Alnus viridis ssp. sinuata) [70,210,257], Pacific madrone (Arbutus menziesia) [69,210], paper birch (Betula papyrifera) [91,200], Port-Orford cedar (Chamaecyparis lawsoniana) [297,313], California hazel (Corylus cornuta var. californica) [210], Douglas hawthorn (Crataegus douglasii) [16,210], western larch (Larix occidentalis) [91,111,143,148,200,249,276,282,329], white spruce (Picea glauca) [90,200], Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) [34], western white pine (Pinus monticola) [91,140,143,148,264], Oregon white oak (Quercus garryana) [297,313], Sadler oak (Quercus sadleriana) [28], Pacific willow (Salix lasiandra) [210], Pacific yew (Taxus brevifolia) [2,151,226,284], western redcedar (Thuja plicata) [10,27,34,119,121,143,160,187,200,288], western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) [10,27,34,91,101,119,124,148,161,264,333], and mountain hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana) [27,161].

Common shrub associates in the northern part of Rocky Mountain maple's range include Pacific serviceberry (Amelanchier florida) [223], sagebrush (Artemisia spp.) [223,269,328], redstem ceanothus (Ceanothus sanguineus) [105,135,319], snowbrush ceanothus (Ceanothus velutinus) [23,105,138,196,223,269], birchleaf mountain-mahogany (Cercocarpus betuloides) [297,313], curlleaf mountain-mahogany (C. ledifolius) [35,200,223], rock clematis (Clematis columbiana) [70,319], Pacific dogwood (Cornus nuttallii) [210], salal (Gaultheria shallon) [69], orange honeysuckle (Lonicera ciliosa) [319], menziesia (Menziesia ferruginea) [8,226,257], Pacific bayberry (Myrica californica) [210], devil's club (Oplopanax horridus) [8,284], Lewis' mockorange (Philadelphus lewisii) [64,319], bittercherry (Prunus emarginata) [16,134,135,210,223,319], bitterbrush (Purshia tridentata) [223,269], cascara (Rhamnus purshiana) [233,319], bristly black currant (Ribes lacustre) [284], baldhip rose (Rosa gymnocarpa) [91,284,319], red raspberry (Rubus idaeus) [64,90,251], blue elderberry (Sambucus cerulea) [16,210,233,319], Greene mountain-ash (Sorbus scopulina) [16,75,90,205,233,284], Sitka mountain-ash (S. sitchensis) [70,90,194], white spirea (Spiraea betulifolia) [8,59,64,91,257], tree spirea (Spiraea discolor) [69], California laurel (Umbellularia californica) [297,313], and big huckleberry (Vaccinium membranaceum) [91,151,257,264,284].

Other common plant associates include queencup beadlily (Clintonia uniflora) [8,9], fireweed (Epilobium angustifolium) [8,9,100], oak fern (Gymnocarpium dryopteris) [2], sword fern (Polystichum munitum) [2], twinflower (Linnaea borealis) [8,70,151,284], Cascades azalea (Rhododendron albiflorum) [8], smooth woodrush (Luzula hitchcockii) [8], pinegrass (Calamagrostis rubescens) [23,100], and elk sedge (Carex geyeri) [100].

Associated species (southern):
Rocky Mountain maple occurs commonly with several species in the southern portion of its distribution. Common tree species include boxelder (Acer negundo) [97,191,325], New Mexico locust (Robinia neomexicana) [81,168,177,261], blue spruce (Picea pungens) [32,95,177,227,261], Rocky Mountain bristlecone pine (Pinus aristata) [227], and southwestern white pine (Pinus strobiformis) [153,227,278].

Common shrub associates occurring with Rocky Mountain maple in the southern part of its range include silvertip sedge (Carex foena) [236], true mountain-mahogany (Cercocarpus montanus) [242], cliffbush (Jamesia americana) [81,82,177,236], bush oceanspray (Holodiscus dumosa) [63,81,177,242], Arizona honeysuckle (Lonicera arizonica) [81,177], Texas mulberry (Morus microphylla) [191], mountain ninebark (Physocarpus monogynus) [81,82,177], black cherry (Prunus serotina) [97,191], smooth sumac (Rhus glabra) [242], and blueberry elder (Sambucus glauca) [48].

Plant Communities:
Classifications describing plant communities in which Rocky Mountain maple is a dominant species are as follows:

Arizona [7,81,99,228,236,309]
California [28]
Colorado [6,32,71,82,165,259]
Idaho [70,290,291,292,294,295,296]
New Mexico [3,4,7,81,82,99,177,228,309]
Oregon [28,64,152]
Utah [205,336]
Washington [332]
Wyoming [5,71,290]

• IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE
• PALATABILITY
• NUTRITIONAL VALUE
• COVER VALUE
• VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES
• OTHER USES AND VALUES
• MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS

IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE:

Rocky Mountain maple is a principal forage species of shrubfields in the northern Rockies, which provide important winter range for deer and elk [21,70,102,179,180,196,288,326,334].

Though it is also browsed in the summer [157,286], Rocky Mountain may be heavily used in late fall and winter by mule deer and white-tailed deer [84,123,157,171,207,237,238]. It is also important winter browse for bighorn sheep [123,317], and elk [105,123,204,320,334]. Rocky Mountain maple is particularly important winter and spring moose browse [123,254,257,298].

Ruffed grouse in Idaho and blue grouse in Nevada eat the leaves and buds of Rocky Mountain maple [202]. Rocky Mountain maple seeds are also important forage for grosbeaks [172] and small mammals [172,287].

PALATABILITY:

The palatability of Rocky Mountain maple for domestic livestock has been rated as follows [85]:

NUTRITIONAL VALUE:

Rocky Mountain maple has low winter nutritional value for moose in British Columbia. Samples collected had the following nutrient content (in % by dry weight): 5.9% protein, 2.4% ether extract, 33.3% crude fiber, and 54.2% nitrogen-free extract [68].

Rocky Mountain maple has fair energy value and poor protein value for domestic cattle, sheep and horses [85].

COVER VALUE:

Cover value of Rocky Mountain maple has been rated as follows [85]:

VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES:

Rocky Mountain maple seed is commercially available [76] and should be stored dry at 35 to 41 degrees Fahrenheit (1.7-5 ^oC) [322]. Though storage for less than 2 years is recommended [129,322], Rocky Mountain maple seeds may be viable up to 3 years [123,279]. Germination requirements include 180 days of warm stratification [322,325] at 68 to 86 degrees Fahrenheit (20-30 ^oC) [243] and 180 days of cold stratification [129,243,279,322,325] at 37 to 41 degrees Fahrenheit (2.8-5 ^oC) [243]. In a laboratory test, 40% of seeds kept at 50 to 60 degrees Fahrenheit (10-15.6 ^oC) both night and day germinated within 30 days [243]. Shade is recommended for seedling establishment [322]. Rocky Mountain maple can also be transplanted; though better results are achieved with older plants than with seedlings [325], bareroot seedlings are often used for restoration and rehabilitation projects [129].

OTHER USES AND VALUES:

MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS:

Rocky Mountain maple percent cover has been found to increase in response to thinning of forest stands [147]. The abundance of Rocky Mountain maple either remains static or increases slightly following logging operations or overstory removal [62]. In Idaho, Rocky Mountain maple demonstrated increased density following a clearcut with no site preparation, a shelterwood cut with mechanical scarification, and a clearcut with mechanical scarification [295]. However, severe mechanical disturbance to the root crown will decrease the abundance of Rocky Mountain maple [86]. Rapid resprouting is likely to follow cutting of Rocky Mountain maple, producing an increase in the total number of stems present. The crown normally becomes more dense and rounded form following canopy removal [62]. Three seasons following mechanical cutting of 19 feet (5.8 m) tall Rocky Mountain maple, clump height ranged from 4 to 6 feet (1.2-1.8 m), crown diameter from 8 to 12 feet (2.4-3.7 m), and stem diameter from 1 to 8 inches (2.5-20.3 cm). Plants produced up to 10 sprouts each, and the treatment released 4-foot (1.2 m) conifer seedlings from shading [216]. 

Herbicide applications of glyphosate, triclopyr, hexazinone, and 2,4-D ester, result in low to severe damage to Rocky Mountain maple [33,62,65,213,214,214,217,218,220,235,250]; however, Rocky Mountain maple is likely to resprout following damage [62,197,235]. Picloram treatments may achieve up to 80% control of Rocky Mountain maple [272]. 

Treatments that cause top-kill will likely result in sprouting [62,197,235], though height reduction to improve browse availability may not be substantial or for any extended duration [197]. 

On sites treated with combination herbicide and mechanical treatments, percent cover, presence, and height of Rocky Mountain maple were substantially lower on scarified than unscarified sites [46]:

• GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS
• RAUNKIAER LIFE FORM
• REGENERATION PROCESSES
• SITE CHARACTERISTICS
• SUCCESSIONAL STATUS
• SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT

GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS:

Rocky Mountain maple has opposite, ascending to erect branches, rounded twigs, and a narrow crown [123,150,325]. The bark of Rocky mountain maple is smooth until maturity, when fissures develop [150,156,159,310,325]. Rocky mountain maple has a wide, spreading root system with a combination of deep and lateral woody roots [123,310,325].

Rocky Mountain maple may be monoecious [74,123,150,172,203,256,310] or dioecious [74,123,141,172,203,310,325,328]. Flowers are borne in loose terminal cymes arising from lateral buds [74] and grow in drooping clusters [123]. The paired seeds are winged samaras [74,123,141,150,325,328]. Seeds are 0.16 to 0.2 inch (4-5 mm) long [256] and samaras are 0.08 to 0.12 inch (20-30 mm) long [203].

RAUNKIAER [262] LIFE FORM:

REGENERATION PROCESSES:

Vegetative regeneration:
Following stem damage or top-kill, Rocky Mountain maple readily resprouts from the root crown [33,62,72,123,176,186,193,295]. Resprouts may not set seed for 3 years after disturbance [72].

Development:
Rocky Mountain maple experiences a rapid increase in height following disturbance, which tapers off around 20 years post-disturbance. Growth modeling estimates that Rocky Mountain maple may reach 4.2 feet (1.3 m) 2 years after disturbance and 10 feet (3 m) by 10 years after disturbance [178], and may overtop even rapidly growing tree seedlings [215]. Maximum heights are reached approximately 30 to 40 years after disturbance [233], on sites with 40 to 50% of full sunlight [144]. Even in closed canopies, Rocky Mountain maple grows above the dominant shrub layer [56].

SITE CHARACTERISTICS:

Location:
Rocky Mountain maple occurs on wetlands, streambanks, canyons, and upland mountain slopes [2,71,72,74,158,172,239,263,265,307,325]. Though it occurs on both moist and dry sites [4,21,30,31,61,74,123,151,190,203,310,312], Rocky Mountain maple is more closely tied to drainages in arid zones of its distribution [79,97,177,310,311,324,325], but occurs on drier exposures northward and at higher elevations [325]. On upland sites, Rocky Mountain maple grows on lower, mid, and upper slopes [82,177,228,236,271], alluvial terraces [123,259], summits, ridgetops [4,177], snow chutes [122,123,204], and talus slopes [166,174,204,208]. Rocky Mountain maple is found on gentle, moderate, and steep slopes [82,177,188,189,205,228,233,290,336], with slopes ranging from 15 to 67% [3,99].

Elevation:
In southern California, Rocky Mountain maple is found from 5,980 to 10,000 feet (1,823-3,048 m) [222,316]. In Arizona and New Mexico, it is found between 5,000 and 12,000 feet (1,524-3,658 m) [7,47,79,82,153,203,221,228,261,307,324] on all aspects [4,81,177,192,228,311,324]. The lower elevation sites are often along streams or drainages [47,48,81,99,177,221,228]. In Colorado and Utah, Rocky Mountain maple grows at 5,000 to 12,700 feet (1,524-3,871 m) [40,93,130,159,174,175,205,242,290,310,336], with northern aspects being optimal for growth and establishment [310].

In northern California, northwestern Nevada, and Oregon, Rocky Mountain maple is common between 2,800 and 9,000 feet (853-2,743 m) [64,175,244]. In Idaho, Montana, and Washington, Rocky Mountain maple occurs between 1,500 and 8,900 feet (457-2,712 m) [36,56,70,75,91,112,196,257,269,293,295,335] on all aspects [61,100,196,234,249]. On sites in Idaho, percent cover of Rocky Mountain maple increased with elevation, but frequency did not [339]. Though it occurs on all aspects, studies in northern Idaho found that Rocky Mountain maple had significantly greater (F=0.05) percent cover on southern aspects than on northern aspects [233]. In British Columbia, Rocky Mountain maple occurs from 1,148 to 4,760 feet (350-1,450 m) [188,189].

Soils:
Rocky Mountain maple occurs on silty, loamy, sandy, gravelly, and rocky soils [45,100,127,177,205,228,290,325,336], with a moderately acidic to slightly basic pH [290,310,325]. It grows on sandstone, limestone, basalt, gneiss, rhyolite, calcareous, and granitic parent materials [45,64,100,112,127,205,290,316]. Rocky Mountain maple grows on shallow [123,233] as well as relatively deep [100,150,228,233,236,310], well developed soils [3,4,156]. Rocky Mountain maple has high requirements of calcium, magnesium, nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus [123,167,233]. In British Columbia, it is reported to be an indicator of nitrogen-rich soils [164].

Drought and Shade Tolerance:
Rocky Mountain maple occupies well-watered [164] and well-drained sites [45,100,123,177,228,310,325], though it will tolerate imperfectly drained soils, periodic flooding, and moderately high water tables [90,166,167,325]. Rocky Mountain maple occupies sites with a range of moisture levels, competing by adjusting total leaf area through stomatal control and shifting the water potential of its leaves [123]. Rocky Mountain maple has a weak to moderate drought tolerance [310,325] and is winter hardy [123,167,169,325]. It is also moderately shade tolerant [123,226,310,325], but experiences more vigorous growth and fruiting in full sun [325].

SUCCESSIONAL STATUS:

Rocky Mountain maple is a major component or dominant in seral shrub-dominant vegetation, which develops rapidly following disturbance in the northern Rockies [36,55,57,58,70,105,113,114,125,133,184,245,299,329,338]. Seral shrubfields result from recurring disturbance including fire and downslope movement of snow, ice, water, and rocks [55,184]. These shrubfields may actually inhibit tree seedling establishment through direct competition and indirectly by providing habitat for browsing animals that damage seedlings [125]. The Rocky Mountain maple/mallow ninebark complex frequently becomes dominant on sites in the northern Rockies [65]. Similar seral shrubfields occur in the southern Rockies. Rocky Mountain maple may actually provide shade to Douglas-fir seedlings aiding in establishment and survival [63].

Rocky Mountain maple may have higher percent cover or occur with greater frequency on more open sites [145,173]. However, Antos [15] found that Rocky Mountain maple shows little response to successional development, maintaining >5% cover in both young and old stands. Rocky Mountain maple is described as shade intolerant to shade tolerant [128,164]; the ability to persist in heavy shade makes it an important species in closed canopy stands [234].

SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT:

• FIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS
• POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY

FIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS:

Rocky Mountain maple occurs as a major component or dominant in seral shrubfields in the northern Rockies. These shrubfields result from canopy removal by repeated severe fires [55,58,63,105,113,135,139,179,196,227,288,329,337]. Seral shrubfields have also been maintained with prescribed fire [184]. A lack of seed combined with increased soil temperatures and moisture stress inhibit tree regeneration and maintain the shrubfields. Fuels in persistent shrubfields consist primarily of the shrubs themselves with little large downed woody material and low litter amounts; in one study conducted in northern Idaho, fuel loading averaged 19.7 tons/acre. Persistent shrubfields may burn in any season; if fuels are continuous and dry, spring fires spread readily, and in summer, hot and dry conditions are exacerbated by nighttime inversions [288].

Fire regimes for plant communities and ecosystems in which Rocky Mountain maple occurs are summarized below. For further information regarding fire regimes and fire ecology of communities and ecosystems where Rocky Mountain maple is found, see the "Fire Ecology ad Adaptations" section of the FEIS species summary for the plant community or ecosystem dominants listed below.

POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY [304]:

• IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT
• DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT
• PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE
• DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE
• FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS

IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT:

DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT:

PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE:

Rocky Mountain maple also colonizes sites after fire via wind-dispersed seed [288].

DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE:

FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS:

Prescribed fire may initially reduce the percent cover of Rocky Mountain maple substantially, though in several years it is expected to approach or surpass pretreatment coverage [285]. Percent cover of Rocky Mountain maple may increase dramatically over preburn levels within 5 years of burning, however, variable results may be expected [62].

Rocky Mountain maple may experience an increase in crown volume following disturbance, resprouting more after burning than after logging treatments [56]. Within 3 years, crown diameters of Rocky Mountain maple may be equal to or greater than diameter prior to burning [180]. However, other studies have found that 2 years after burning, Rocky Mountain maple only recovered 8% of its prefire crown volume, and proportion of total shrub volume had decreased from 80% prefire to 14% postfire [193]. Three out of 4 harvest and burning treatments in Montana were found to effectively reduce Rocky Mountain maple shrub volume, though it began increasing again after 2 years posttreatment. The 4th treatment (no burning) left more individuals intact and they subsequently demonstrated less sprouting and Rocky mountain maple experienced no dramatic decline or increase in shrub volume [274]. After prescribed burning in Idaho, Rocky Mountain maple averaged 120 sprouts per plant; fall burning produced fewer but longer sprouts than spring burning [182]. Mean heights for Rocky Mountain maple were found to be greater on logged/broadcast burned sites than on logged or logged/piled/burned sites in Idaho [233].

Prescribed burning is used to maintain seral shrubfields and provide winter range for elk by retarding conifer dominance, decreasing the height of browse plants, increasing browse quality and palatability, and stimulating forage plants to regenerate from seed [179,180,212,240,288]. However, Rocky Mountain maple quickly grows out of reach of browsing animals due to its rapid regrowth after fire [139,180,326]. Miller and others [212] found that low-temperature fires might encourage excessive growth with leaders exceeding 6.5 feet (2 m) in a single growing season. Severe burns that actually damage Rocky Mountain maple and stunt leader growth may be better utilized to reduce leader heights to a usable level of 1.6 feet (.5 m) or less. Prescribed fire effectively improves forage availability in the short-term [25,56,193,195,326,331], and has been found to reduce height of Rocky Mountain maple from 7 to 16 feet (2.1-4.9 m) before fire to less than 7 feet (2.1 m) after fire [198]. Asherin [25] found that by the end of the 3rd postfire growing season, Rocky Mountain maple height exceeded 8 feet (2.4 m). Four years after burning in Idaho shrubfields, 80% of twig production remained within reach of elk [181,182]. Repeated burns at 10 to 15 year intervals are expected to maintain Rocky Mountain maple availability [181,182,184,288]; however, it is often difficult to re-establish trees on these sites in the future [288]. Broadcast burning of clearcuts in the northern Rockies may produce these seral shrubfields [162,281,338]; in 1 study, shrub-dominant vegetation occurred by the 8th postfire year [338]. Rocky Mountain maple was present within 4 years on another lightly burned clearcut [126].

After burning, browse production may be higher than prefire production initially [56,183], but annual production was observed to taper off by the 10th year, falling below prefire browse production [183]. Both spring and fall burning appear to increase Rocky Mountain maple palatability, based on heavy use in burned areas and browsing of larger twigs [180]. Crude protein levels may be higher in Rocky Mountain maple for up to 4 years following fire [240].

Acer glabrum: References

1. Achuff, Peter L. 1989. Old-growth forests of the Canadian Rocky Mountain national parks. Natural Areas Journal. 9(1): 12-26. [7442]

2. Agee, James K. 1996. Fire in the Blue Mountains: a history, ecology, and research agenda. In: Jaindl, R. G.; Quigley, T. M., eds. Search for a solution: sustaining the land, people and economy of the Blue Mountains. Washington, DC: American Forests: 119-145. [28827]

3. Alexander, Billy G., Jr.; Fitzhugh, E. Lee; Ronco, Frank, Jr.; Ludwig, John A. 1987. A classification of forest habitat types of the northern portion of the Cibola National Forest, New Mexico. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-143. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 35 p. [4207]

4. Alexander, Billy G., Jr.; Ronco, Frank, Jr.; Fitzhugh, E. Lee; Ludwig, John A. 1984. A classification of forest habitat types of the Lincoln National Forest, New Mexico. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-104. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 29 p. [300]

5. Alexander, Robert R. 1986. Classification of the forest vegetation of Wyoming. Res. Note RM-466. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 10 p. [304]

6. Alexander, Robert R. 1987. Classification of the forest vegetation of Colorado by habitat type and community type. Res. Note RM-478. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 14 p. [9092]

7. Alexander, Robert R.; Ronco, Frank, Jr. 1987. Classification of the forest vegetation on the National Forests of Arizona and New Mexico. Res. Note RM-469. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 10 p. [3515]

8. Alexander, Robert R.; Shearer, Raymond C.; Shepperd, Wayne D. 1990. Abies lasiocarpa (Hook.) Nutt. subalpine fir. In: Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H., technical coordinators. Silvics of North America. Volume 1. Conifers. Agric. Handb. 654. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 60-70. [13369]

9. Alexander, Robert R.; Shepperd, Wayne D. 1990. Picea engelmannii Parry ex Engelm. Engelmann spruce. In: Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H., technical coordinators. Silvics of North America. Volume 1. Conifers. Agric. Handb. 654. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 187-203. [13384]

10. Aller, Alvin R. 1960. The composition of the Lake McDonald forest, Glacier National Park. Ecology. 41(1): 29-33. [6329]

11. Anderson, Howard George. 1967. The phytosociology of some vine maple communities in the Mary's Peak watershed. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University. 118 p. Thesis. [9877]

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