• ABBREVIATION
• SYNONYMS
• NRCS PLANT CODE
• COMMON NAMES
• TAXONOMY
• LIFE FORM
• FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS
• OTHER STATUS
• AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION

ABBREVIATION:

ARTTRP

SYNONYMS:

No entry

NRCS PLANT CODE:

ARTR4
ARTRT2
ARTRR2

COMMON NAMES:

threetip sagebrush
tall threetip sagebrush
Wyoming threetip sagebrush

TAXONOMY:

The fully documented scientific name of threetip sagebrush is Artemisia tripartita Rydb. (Asteraceae) [3,21,33]. Two subspecies of threetip sagebrush are currently recognized: tall threetip sagebrush (A. tripartita ssp. tripartita) and Wyoming threetip sagebrush (A. tripartita ssp. rupicola Beetle) [3,33].

According to Beetle [3], threetip sagebrush occasionally forms natural hybrids with silver sagebrush (A. cana ssp. viscidula). Hybrids with Wyoming big sagebrush (A. tridentata spp. wyomingensis) may also occur in parts of south-central and southeastern Idaho [52]. In some areas, threetip sagebrush may intergrade with low sagebrush (A. arbuscula ssp. arbuscula) [3].

LIFE FORM:

shrub

FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS:

No special status

OTHER STATUS:

No entry

AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION:

Tirmenstein, D. (1999, July ). Artemisia tripartita. In: Remainder of Citation

• GENERAL DISTRIBUTION
• ECOSYSTEMS
• STATES
• BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS
• KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS
• SAF COVER TYPES
• SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES
• HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION:

Tall threetip sagebrush ranges from central British Columbia south through central Washington and western Oregon to northern Nevada, and from western Montana south through eastern Idaho to northern Utah. It also occurs in the Snake River Valley in western Wyoming [3].

Wyoming threetip sagebrush occurs in central and southeastern Wyoming and southern Oregon [3,14]. In Wyoming, the subspecies are separated by the Continental Divide, with Wyoming threetip sagebrush occurring only east of the Divide [6].

Threetip sagebrush grows on approximately 8.4 million acres (3.4 million hectares) throughout the northern Rocky Mountains and Great Basin [11]. Occurrence is spotty throughout much of the Intermountain region because most of the area has been plowed for farmland [56].

ECOSYSTEMS:

FRES29  Sagebrush
FRES38  Plains grasslands

STATES:

ID  MT  NV  OR  UT  WA  WY

BC

BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS:

 5 Columbia Plateau
 6 Upper Basin and Range
 8 Northern Rocky Mountains
 9 Middle Rocky Mountains
10 Wyoming Basin

KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS:

K038  Great Basin sagebrush
K050  Fescue-wheatgrass
K055  Sagebrush steppe
K056  Wheatgrass-needlegrass shrubsteppe
K065  Grama-buffalograss

SAF COVER TYPES:

No entry

SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES:

322  Curlleaf mountain mahogany-bluebunch wheatgrass
324  Threetip sagebrush-Idaho fescue
404  Threetip sagebrush
416  True mountain mahogany

HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES:

Tall threetip sagebrush is commonly associated with bluebunch wheatgrass (Pseudoroegneria spicata), Idaho fescue (Festuca idahoensis), needle-and-thread grass (Hesperostipa comata), Sandberg bluegrass (Poa secunda), and Thurber's needlegrass (Achnatherum thurberianum). Common shrub associates of threetip sagebrush include big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata), broom snakeweed (Guterrezia sarothrae), green rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus), gray horsebrush (Tetradymia canescens), and curlleaf mountain-mahogany (Cercocarpus ledifolius) [55]. Stands of tall threetip sagebrush often occur adjacent to mountain big sagebrush (A. t. spp. vaseyana) stands [6], but usually on moister soils at higher elevations [10]. Threetip sagebrush typically occurs at elevations above Wyoming big sagebrush but below mountain big sagebrush [11]. Threetip sagebrush stands are often more uniform with plants more closely spaced than in big sagebrush stands [46].

Publications listing tall threetip sagebrush as a dominant, codominant, or indicator species include the following:

Habitat types of the Curlew National Grassland, Idaho [20]
Steppe vegetation of Washington [22]
Wildlife habitat on managed rangelands--the Great Basin of southeastern Oregon: plant communities
    and their importance to wildlife [24]
Sagebrush-grass habitat types of southern Idaho [31]
An ecological study of sagebrush in interior British Columbia [36]
Plant communities of the Similkameen Valley, British Columbia [40]
Grassland and shrubland habitat types of western Montana [42]
An area of pristine vegetation in Craters of the Moon National Monument, Idaho [63]

Wyoming threetip sagebrush: This taxon commonly occurs with slimstem muhly (Muhlenberia filiculmis) [62]. The following publication lists Wyoming threetip sagebrush as a dominant species:

Grassland and shrubland habitat types of the Shoshone National Forest [64]

• IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE
• PALATABILITY
• NUTRITIONAL VALUE
• COVER VALUE
• VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES
• OTHER USES AND VALUES
• MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS

IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE:

Threetip sagebrush is not a preferred browse for most wild ungulates. Threetip sagebrush is used to some extent by mule deer in both summer and winter in north-central Washington [18]. In Wyoming, elk do not generally feed on threetip sagebrush [4]. In parts of Wyoming, Wyoming threetip sagebrush may be used by large ungulates as emergency winter forage [25].

Threetip sagebrush may provide some browse for domestic sheep but its value to cattle appears limited. It is "never used" by cattle in Nevada [14,52]. In British Columbia, threetip sagebrush may be browsed by domestic sheep, but is not used by cattle [19]. Threetip sagebrush, along with other species of Artemisia, is eaten throughout the year by the pygmy rabbit in southeastern Idaho [30]. In southern Idaho, sage grouse may include small amounts of threetip sagebrush leaves in their diet. The genus is, in general, used to some degree by sharp-tailed grouse, sage grouse, jackrabbits, chipmunks, ground squirrels, pocket mice, and kangaroo rats [58].

PALATABILITY:

Threetip sagebrush is one of the least palatable species within the genus to both livestock and wildlife [3]. However, palatability of tall threetip sagebrush is quite variable. Some plants may be heavily browsed, while others are barely touched [72]. Palatability may vary by form and/or population [38,51]. A hybrid between threetip sagebrush and Wyoming big sagebrush is important and palatable forage in some parts of south-central and southeastern Idaho [52]. Subspecies: Wyoming threetip sagebrush is rated poor in palatability to cattle, domestic sheep, and horses in Wyoming. Palatability of tall threetip sagebrush is rated as follows [25]:

                           UT      WY
Cattle                    poor    fair
Sheep                     fair    good
Horses                    poor    fair
Pronghorn                 fair    ----
Elk                       fair    ----
Mule deer                 fair    ----
Small mammals             fair    ----
Small nongame birds       fair    ----
Upland game birds         good    ----
Waterfowl                 poor    ----

NUTRITIONAL VALUE:

Tall threetip sagebrush is rated fair in energy and protein value and is listed as slightly toxic to livestock [25]. Nutritional values (%) for both subspecies in Wyoming are listed below [3]:

Date          Crude    Crude  Crude  Ash   CaO    Mg
              protein  fat    fiber                    
Tall threetip sagebrush  
 6/12/57      13.00    10.12  21.58  6.85  0.770  0.185
 7/15/58       4.17     1.45  51.88  4.49  0.45   ---
 7/17/58      11.54    12.56  14.94  5.92  0.66   ---
 7/19/57      11.00    12.10  20.53  6.90  0.98   0.207
11/10/57       8.63     8.22  28.67  4.75  0.755  0.142
Wyoming threetip sagebrush
 5/29/57      10.19     5.72  28.03 12.03  1.205  0.176
11/10/57       7.44     9.46  31.17  4.58  0.839  0.170

COVER VALUE:

Threetip sagebrush provides nesting cover for sage grouse in south-central Washington and in southern Idaho [29,34,60]. In Washington, threetip sagebrush/fescue (Festuca spp.) communities provide habitat for sharp-tailed grouse. Loess mounds in stands of tall threetip sagebrush provide a stone-free substrate for rodents and badgers [22].

The degree to which tall threetip sagebrush provides cover for wildlife species in Utah is as follows [25]:

 
Pronghorn               fair
Elk                     poor
Mule deer               fair
Small mammals           good
Small nongame birds     good
Upland game birds       good
Waterfowl               poor

VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES:

Threetip sagebrush can be successfully planted onto disturbed sites. Plants may be propagated through seed or by layering. Details on specific planting techniques are available [54].

According to McArthur [37], artificial hybrids of the drought-tolerant silver sagebrush (A. cana) and fire-tolerant threetip sagebrush may "hold some promise of rebuilding a badly damaged ecosystem."

OTHER USES AND VALUES:

No entry

MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS:

Tall threetip sagebrush can resprout after burning, clipping, or chemical treatment; periodic treatment, with proper grazing management during treatment intervals, may be necessary if sagebrush reduction is desired [6]. Often, mechanical control measures, such as cutting or beating, are only partially successful due to the low spreading branches and a proclivity to resprout. Root cutters can be effective in reducing numbers but work best on level rock-free ground [48]. Threetip sagebrush is described as "moderately susceptible" to defoliation during the fall and winter [11].

Various herbicides can be used to reduce threetip sagebrush, with reductions of up to 50 to 70% reported during the 2nd growing season [44]. However, herbicide treatments often are expensive and can produce only temporary reductions in threetip sagebrush. Even after large reductions are obtained with herbicides, threetip sagebrush often seeds back within 5 to 10 years [52]. In some cases, plants may sprout after herbicide applications [10,52]. Often the stands that develop are denser than prior to herbicide application [52]. Details on herbicide applications are available [44].

Individual longevity of threetip sagebrush is reduced by grazing in sagebrush-grass communities of south-central Utah [70]. In eastern Idaho, tall threetip sagebrush increases in response to heavy spring domestic sheep use [26]. Fall sheep use can, by contrast, result in decreases of tall threetip sagebrush [26,43,67]. Heavy fall sheep grazing with light grazing in spring under a rotational system can increase grass and forb production [26,61].

Sandberg bluegrass (Poa secunda) and Kentucky bluegrass (P. pratensis) are common increasers in tall threetip sagebrush stands [71]. As badgers dig rodents from loess mounds in tall threetip sagebrush stands, the soil is churned and invasion of basin wildrye (Leymus cinereus) may also be favored [22].

• GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS
• RAUNKIAER LIFE FORM
• REGENERATION PROCESSES
• SITE CHARACTERISTICS
• SUCCESSIONAL STATUS
• SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT

GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS:

Tall threetip sagebrush is a rounded, freely branching, native evergreen shrub that grows up to 6 feet (2 m) in height [3,38]. Leaves are long and deeply 3-cleft [5].

Wyoming threetip sagebrush is a dwarf shrub with decumbent branches. It can grow up to 59 inches (15 cm) tall, with a crown spread of 12 to 20 inches (30-50 cm) [3].

RAUNKIAER LIFE FORM:

Phanerophyte

REGENERATION PROCESSES:

Threetip sagebrush can sprout, but sprouting ability varies by geographic location which suggests ecotypic variation [2]. Both subspecies of threetip sagebrush "occasionally sprout from the roots" [9]. Tall threetip sagebrush sprouts from shallow, lateral roots or the root crown and can also layer [22]. Wyoming threetip sagebrush can also sprout from the root crown or layer [3,38].

The light seed of threetip sagebrush is wind-dispersed [49]. Both tall threetip sagebrush and Wyoming threetip sagebrush are vigorous seeders [39]. Threetip sagebrush can seed back onto disturbed sites within 5 to 10 years; density increases after treatment by herbicides [53].

Germination of threetip sagebrush is described as "moderate to rapid" [73]. In germination experiments, germination of tall threetip sagebrush increased progressively with increased stratification. Germination is greatest at approximately 60^o Fahrenheit (16^oC). Details on germination techniques for threetip sagebrush are available [36]. Threetip sagebrush seed can remain viable for 4 to 6 years in storage [54].

SITE CHARACTERISTICS:

Threetip sagebrush commonly grows on steep slopes, rocky knolls, and windswept ridges with shallow soils [6,18]. It occurs in semi-arid areas which are characterized by cold winters and warm summers [11]. Tall threetip sagebrush is especially common along river drainages [6]. Wyoming threetip sagebrush occurs on shallow, rocky soils on barren knolls surrounded by well-developed grasslands [3].

Tall threetip sagebrush grows on moderate to deep, well-drained, loamy to sandy loam soils [26]. In western Montana and Idaho, it is associated with coarse-textured sandy to stony soils [41]. In Idaho tall threetip sagebrush is often associated with fertile volcanic soils [56]. Threetip sagebrush is tolerant of dry soils [23].

The elevational range of tall threetip sagebrush in several states is as follows [10,21,69]:

3,388 to 7,084 feet (1100-2300 m) in the Intermountain Region
6,500 to 7,000 feet (1980-2130 m) in Montana
4,697 to 5,636 feet (1525-1830 m) in Utah
6,000 to 7,000 feet (1830-2130 m) in Wyoming

The elevational range of Wyoming threetip sagebrush in Wyoming is from 7,000 to 9,000 feet (2,130-2,740 m) [3].

SUCCESSIONAL STATUS:

Threetip sagebrush occurs in a number of undisturbed communities. It occurs with Idaho fescue in climax steppe communities of eastern Washington [23]. In southeastern Idaho, tall threetip sagebrush is common in late successional communities [32]. Wyoming threetip sagebrush is described as an indicator of climax in some Wyoming sagebrush communities [64]. Although tall threetip sagebrush grows in undisturbed communities, it has established on disturbed sites within 5 to 10 years. Tall threetip sagebrush increases in the absence of disturbance such as fire [2].

Tall threetip sagebrush, along with fringed sagebrush (Artemisia frigida), often replaces big sagebrush following fire in grassland communities of British Columbia [19]. Under heavy disturbance, tall threetip sagebrush stands may become dense brush fields, with tall threetip sagebrush crowding out herbaceous understory species [71].

SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT:

Threetip sagebrush begins new growth in May, young flowerheads develop in July, and flowering occurs during August and October. In Wyoming, tall threetip sagebrush flowers from June to September, with August as the most common flowering period [25]. Seed ripens in October [3].

In eastern Idaho phenological development of threetip sagebrush is as follows [8,72]:

 Dates for various stages in 1965           Average dates for 1941-1947
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
leaf growth started       Apr 25           April
twig growth started       May 25           mid-June
flowerbuds evident        Jun 20           ------               
flowerstalk growth        Jul 20           ------   
    stopped
first bloom               Sept 1           ------
full bloom                ------           mid-Sept
blooming over             Sept 20          ------  
seed ripe                 Oct  12          mid-Oct
seed disseminated         Nov  05          ------
previous year's leaves
     begin to drop        Aug  05          ------
previous year's leaves    Sep  02          ------
     off

  
leaf growth     twig growth     flower buds    1st       full
starts          starts          visible        bloom     bloom

4/20             6/25           6/17           9/15      9/18

bloom           seed            leaves      
over            ripe            drying

9/30            10/14           7/30 

Wyoming threetip sagebrush blooms in late August and September; the seeds ripen in October [3].

• FIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS
• POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY

FIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS:

Threetip sagebrush exhibits variable sprouting abilities following fire. The specific response may depend on ecotypic differences or on fire severity [1,16]. In some instances sprouting is described as "weak," but in other cases, researchers have observed "prolific" or "vigorous" sprouting [1,3]. Both tall threetip sagebrush and Wyoming sagebrush sprout from the root crown and in some cases, can also layer following fire [3,5,6].

Some species that dominate communities where threetip sagebrush occurs are listed below. To learn more about the fire regimes in those communities, refer to the FEIS summary for these species, under “Fire Ecology or Adaptations.”

big sagebrush
blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis)
Idaho fescue
bluebunch wheatgrass

POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY:

Small shrub, adventitious-bud root crown
Secondary colonizer - off-site seed

• IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT
• DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT
• PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE
• DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE
• FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS

IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT:

Unlike many low-stature sagebrush communities, threetip sagebrush communities can support fire spread [12]. Fires often kill aerial plant parts. Threetip sagebrush is described as "severely damaged" by fire in parts of the Intermountain Region [13]. In Wyoming, threetip sagebrush is "moderately damaged" by fire [57] and in Idaho, plants are generally "harmed" by fire [45]. A fairly high percentage of threetip sagebrush is commonly killed by fire in southern Idaho; a small percentage may resprout [47,48].

DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT:

No entry

PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE:

Threetip sagebrush may sprout from the root crown after fire in British Columbia or in the Intermountain West [19,38,48]. Resprouting from lateral roots has also been reported [15,68]. Beetle [3] observed that tall threetip sagebrush sometimes sprouts vigorously from the root crown following fire. Wyoming threetip sagebrush can also sprout from the root crown following fire [3,5]. Layering may also occur after tall threetip sagebrush is burned and after "control" of Wyoming threetip sagebrush [6].

However, sprouting ability varies considerably with geographic location which suggests that several ecotypes may exist [3,14,16]. Sprouting is also most likely when threetip sagebrush is burned while soils are most [73].  

DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE:

In general, populations in eastern Idaho seem to have the greatest potential for resprouting after fire. Populations in southern Idaho's Snake River Plain seem to have low resprouting potential and those in eastern Oregon have a moderate potential for resprouting after fire [16]. However, Young [73] reported a strong sprouting response following fire in parts of eastern Oregon. Overall reprouting potential in southern Idaho and eastern Oregon can range from "high" to "nearly zero" [15]. In southwestern Montana, populations tend to sprout readily after fire [16].

In a southeastern Idaho study, Akinsoji [1] observed no sprouting 1 year after fire. Lack of sprouting could have been due to the "intensity of the burn." Similarly, Pechanic and others [47] reported that only approximately 6% of threetip sagebrush resprouted in the 1st year or 2 after fire in a southeastern Idaho study. At Craters of the Moon National Monument in southeastern Idaho, only "moderate resprouting potential" was observed, and reductions in cover and density usually occur after fire [2]. Only a "small percentage of plants" resprouted after fire in a northern Great Basin study [17].

FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS:

Because threetip sagebrush can sometimes sprout prolifically after fire, special management considerations may be required if reductions in sagebrush are desired management goals [71].

Artemisia tripartita: References

1. Akinsoji, Aderopo. 1988. Postfire vegetation dynamics in a sagebrush steppe in southeastern Idaho, USA. Vegetatio. 78: 151-155. [6944]

2. Barrington, Mac; Bunting, Steve; Wright, Gerald. 1988. A fire management plan for Craters of the Moon National Monument. Cooperative Agreement CA-9000-8-0005. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho, Range Resources Department. 52 p. Draft. [1687]

3. Beetle, A. A. 1960. A study of sagebrush: The section Tridentatae of Artemisia. Bulletin 368. Laramie, WY: University of Wyoming, Agricultural Experiment Station. 83 p. [416]

4. Beetle, Alan A. 1962. Range survey in Teton County, Wyoming: Part 2. Utilization and condition classes. Bull. 400. Laramie, WY: University of Wyoming, Agricultural Experiment Station. 38 p. [418]

5. Beetle, Alan A. 1977. Recognition of Artemisia subspecies--a necessity. In: Johnson, Kendall L., ed. Wyoming shrublands: Proceedings, 6th Wyoming shrub ecology workshop; 1977 May 24-25; Buffalo, WY. Laramie, WY: Shrub Ecology Workshop: 35-42. [419]

6. Beetle, Alan A.; Johnson, Kendall L. 1982. Sagebrush in Wyoming. Bull. 779. Laramie, WY: University of Wyoming, Agricultural Experiment Station. 68 p. [421]

7. Bernard, Stephen R.; Brown, Kenneth F. 1977. Distribution of mammals, reptiles, and amphibians by BLM physiographic regions and A.W. Kuchler's associations for the eleven western states. Tech. Note 301. Denver, CO: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. 169 p. [434]

8. Blaisdell, James P. 1953. Ecological effects of planned burning of sagebrush-grass range on the Upper Snake River Plains. Tech. Bull. 1975. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture. 39 p. [462]

9. Blaisdell, James P. 1958. Seasonal development and yield of native plants on the upper Snake River Plains and their relation to certain climatic factors. Tech. Bull. 1190. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture. 68 p. [463]

10. Blaisdell, James P.; Murray, Robert B.; McArthur, E. Durant. 1982. Managing Intermountain rangelands--sagebrush-grass ranges. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-134. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 41 p. [467]

11. Bork, Edward W.; West, Neil E.; Walker, John W. 1998. Cover components on long-term seasonal sheep grazing treatments in three-tip sagebrush steppe. Journal of Range Management. 51(3): 293-300. [28589]

12. Britton, Carlton M. 1979. Fire on the range. Western Wildlands. 5(4): 32-33. [514]

13. Britton, Carlton M.; Ralphs, Michael H. 1979. Use of fire as a management tool in sagebrush ecosystems. In: The sagebrush ecosystem: a symposium: Proceedings; 1978 April; Logan, UT. Logan, UT: Utah State University, College of Natural Resources. 101-109. [518]

14. Brunner, James R. 1972. Observations on Artemisia in Nevada. Journal of Range Management. 25: 205-298. [550]

15. Bunting, Stephen C. 1989. Effects of prescribed fire on rangeland shrubs in the Intermountain Region. In: Baumgartner, David M.; Breuer, David W.; Zamora, Benjamin A.; [and others], compilers. Prescribed fire in the Intermountain region: Symposium proceedings; 1986 March 3-5; Spokane, WA. Pullman, WA: Washington State University, Cooperative Extension: 103-106. [11254]

16. Bunting, Stephen C.; Kilgore, Bruce M.; Bushey, Charles L. 1987. Guidelines for prescribed burning sagebrush-grass rangelands in the northern Great Basin. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-231. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 33 p. [5281]

17. Bushey, Charles L. 1987. Short-term vegetative response to prescribed burning in the sagebrush/grass ecosystem of the northern Great Basin; three years of postburn data from the demonstration of prescribed burning on selected Bureau of Land Management districts. Final Report. Cooperative Agreement 22-C-4-INT-33. Missoula, MT: Systems for Environmental Management. 77 p. [568]

18. Carson, Robert G.; Peek, James M. 1987. Mule deer habitat selection patterns in northcentral Washington. Journal of Wildlife Management. 51(1): 46-51. [608]

19. Cawker, K. B. 1983. Fire history and grassland vegetation change: three pollen diagrams from southern British Columbia. Canadian Journal of Botany. 61: 1126-1139. [611]

20. Collins, P. D.; Harper, K. T. 1982. Habitat types of the Curlew National Grassland, Idaho. Provo, UT: Brigham Young University, Department of Botany and Range Science. 46 p. Editorial draft. [663]

21. Cronquist, Arthur; Holmgren, Arthur H.; Holmgren, Noel H.; [and others]. 1994. Intermountain flora: Vascular plants of the Intermountain West, U.S.A. Vol. 5. Asterales. New York: The New York Botanical Garden. 496 p. [28653]

22. Daubenmire, R. 1970. Steppe vegetation of Washington. Technical Bulletin 62. Pullman, WA: Washington State University, College of Agriculture, Washington Agricultural Experiment Station. 131 p. [733]

23. Daubenmire, R. 1972. Annual cycles of soil moisture and temperature as related to grass development in the steppe of eastern Washington. Ecology. 53(3): 419-424. [741]

24. Dealy, J. Edward; Leckenby, Donavin A.; Concannon, Diane M. 1981. Wildlife habitats on managed rangelands--the Great Basin of southeastern Oregon: plant communities and their importance to wildlife. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-120. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest and Range Experiment Station. 66 p. [786]

25. Dittberner, Phillip L.; Olson, Michael R. 1983. The plant information network (PIN) data base: Colorado, Montana, North Dakota, Utah, and Wyoming. FWS/OBS-83/86. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. 786 p. [806]

26. Ellison, Lincoln. 1960. Influence of grazing on plant succession of rangelands. Botanical Review. 26(1): 1-78. [862]

27. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Washington, DC: Society of American Foresters. 148 p. [905]

28. Garrison, George A.; Bjugstad, Ardell J.; Duncan, Don A.; [and others]. 1977. Vegetation and environmental features of forest and range ecosystems. Agric. Handb. 475. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 68 p. [998]

29. Gray, Gene Mack. 1967. An ecological study of sage grouse broods with reference to nesting, movements, food habits, and sagebrush strip spraying in the Medicine Lodge drainage, Clark County, Idaho. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho. 200 p. Thesis. [5894]

30. Green, Jeffery, S.; Flinders, Jerran T. 1980. Habitat and dietary relationships of the pygmy rabbit. Journal of Range Management. 33(2): 136-142. [6257]

31. Hironaka, M.; Fosberg, M. A.; Winward, A. H. 1983. Sagebrush-grass habitat types of southern Idaho. Bulletin Number 35. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho, Forest, Wildlife and Range Experiment Station. 44 p. [1152]

32. Humphrey, L. David. 1984. Patterns and mechanisms of plant succession after fire on Artemisia-grass sites in southeastern Idaho. Vegetatio. 57: 91-101. [1214]

33. Kartesz, John T. 1994. A synonymized checklist of the vascular flora of the United States, Canada, and Greenland. Volume I--checklist. 2nd ed. Portland, OR: Timber Press. 622 p. [23877]

34. Klebenow, Donald A. 1969. Sage grouse nesting and brood habitat in Idaho. Journal of Wildlife Management. 33(3): 649-662. [26035]

35. Kuchler, A. W. 1964. Manual to accompany the map of potential vegetation of the conterminous United States. Special Publication No. 36. New York: American Geographical Society. 77 p. [1384]

36. Marchand, Leonard Stephen. 1964. An ecological study of sagebrush in interior British Columbia. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho. 116 p. Thesis. [5678]

37. McArthur, E. Durant. 1994. Ecology, distribution, and values of sagebrush within the Intermountain Region. In: Monsen, Stephen B.; Kitchen, Stanley G., compilers. Proceedings--ecology and management of annual rangelands; 1992 May 18-22; Boise, ID. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-GTR-313. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station: 347-351. [24308]

38. McArthur, E. Durant; Blauer, A. Clyde; Plummer, A. Perry; Stevens, Richard. 1979. Characteristics and hybridization of important Intermountain shrubs. III. Sunflower family. Res. Pap. INT-220. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 82 p. [1571]

39. McArthur, E. Durant; Stevens, Richard. 1986. Composite shrubs. Unpublished manuscript on file at: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Labortory, Missoula, MT. 155 p. [7342]

40. McLean, Alastair. 1970. Plant communities of the Similkameen Valley, British Columbia. Ecological Monographs. 40(4): 403-424. [1620]

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Related categories for SPECIES: Artemisia tripartita | Threetip Sagebrush