|
Wildlife, Animals, and Plants
|
|
Introductory
SPECIES: Cornus sericea | Red-Osier Dogwood
ABBREVIATION :
CORSER
SYNONYMS :
Cornus stolonifera
Cornus alba var. occidentalis
Cornus occidentalis
Cornus alba var. baileyi
Cornus alba var. californica
Cornus alba var. interior
Cornus alba var. coloradense
Cornus baileyi
Cornus instolonea
Cornus interior
Cornus sanguinea
Svida stolonifera
Cornus pubescens
Cornus californica
Suida interior
Ossea interior
Suida stolonifera var. riparia
Cornus instoloneus
Cornus nelsoni
Cornus amomum
SCS PLANT CODE :
COST4
COMMON NAMES :
red-osier dogwood
western dogwood
American dogwood
redstem dogwood
red dogwood
kinnikinnik
squawbush
creek dogwood
California dogwood
red-stemmed cornel
redbrush
gutter tree
red willow
harts rouges
poison dogwood
shoemack
waxberry cornel
dogberry tree
redosier dogwood
TAXONOMY :
The currently accepted scientific name of red-osier dogwood is Cornus
sericea L. Although the name "Cornus stolonifera Michx." is in wide
current use [45,60] and the merits of both names have been debated
[40,112], a recent, extensive review of work with the genus gives the
correct name as C. sericea [34].
The discussion of how closely related forms in the Cornaceae should be
segregated has gone on for years and is summarized by Eyde [33,34] and
Ferguson [36,37]. Two main groups within Cornus are red-line dogwoods,
with showy bracts below the flowers and red fruit, and blue-line
dogwoods, without bracts and blue or white fruit [34]. Other authors
have placed the bractless dogwoods, including red-osier dogwood, in a
separate genus called Thleycrania, Ossea, or Svida (originally Swjda,
also spelled Swida and Suida) [33,36,37]. Red-osier dogwood is very
widespread and variable; thus similar populations have been considered
variously as separate but interbreeding species, subspecies, and
varieties [40,60,69].
Recognized subspecies of Cornus sericea are as follows [69]:
ssp. occidentalis
ssp. sericea
The two subspecies interbreed quite freely and C. X californica is the
name given resultant plants. C. X acadiensis is a hybrid of C. sericea
and C. alternifolia [112]. C. X slavini is a hybrid of C. sericea and
C. rugosa [143]. There are relatively slight differences between the
two subspecies and this paper considers the entire complex as red-osier
dogwood.
LIFE FORM :
Tree, Shrub
FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS :
No special status
OTHER STATUS :
NO-ENTRY
COMPILED BY AND DATE :
M. F. Crane, August 1989
LAST REVISED BY AND DATE :
NO-ENTRY
AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION :
Crane, M. F. 1989. Cornus sericea. In: Remainder of Citation
DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
SPECIES: Cornus sericea | Red-Osier Dogwood
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION :
Red-osier dogwood occurs from Alaska and the Yukon Territory east to
Labrador and Newfoundland. It extends south to Virginia in the East, to
Kansas in the Great Plains, to northern Mexico in the Rocky Mountains,
and through California on the West Coast [52,53,54,71,100]. In the
northeastern and midwestern United States it is common in previously
glaciated areas; south of these areas it occurs locally where site
conditions are favorable [142].
ECOSYSTEMS :
FRES10 White - red - jack pine
FRES11 Spruce - fir
FRES17 Elm - ash - cottonwood
FRES18 Maple - beech - birch
FRES19 Aspen - birch
FRES20 Douglas-fir
FRES21 Ponderosa pine
FRES22 Western white pine
FRES23 Fir - spruce
FRES24 Hemlock - Sitka spruce
FRES25 Larch
FRES26 Lodgepole pine
FRES27 Redwood
FRES28 Western hardwoods
FRES29 Sagebrush
FRES34 Chaparral - mountain shrub
FRES35 Pinyon - juniper
FRES36 Mountain grasslands
FRES37 Mountain meadows
FRES38 Plains grasslands
FRES39 Prairie
STATES :
AL AZ CA CO CT ID IL IN IA ME
MA MI MN MT NE NV NH NJ NM NY
ND OH OR PA RI SD UT VT VA WA
WV WI WY AB BC LB MB NB NF NT
NS ON PE PQ SK
ADMINISTRATIVE UNITS :
ACAD ALPO APIS BAND BICA BLCA
BLRI BRCA CACH CANY CARE CODA
CRLA CRMO CUVA DETO DINO EFMO
FLFO GATE GWMP GLAC GRCA GRTE
GRBA GRKO GRSA INDU ISRO JODA
KICA LACL LAVO MORA MORU NOCA
PIRO ROMO SAGU SEQU SLBE THRO
TICA PIPE VOYA WACA WICA WRST
YELL YUCH ZION
BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS :
1 Northern Pacific Border
2 Cascade Mountains
3 Southern Pacific Border
4 Sierra Mountains
5 Columbia Plateau
6 Upper Basin and Range
8 Northern Rocky Mountains
9 Middle Rocky Mountains
10 Wyoming Basin
11 Southern Rocky Mountains
12 Colorado Plateau
15 Black Hills Uplift
16 Upper Missouri Basin and Broken Lands
KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS :
K001 Spruce - cedar - hemlock forest
K002 Cedar - hemlock - Douglas-fir forest
K003 Silver fir - Douglas-fir forest
K004 Fir - hemlock forest
K005 Mixed conifer forest
K006 Redwood forest
K008 Lodgepole pine - subalpine forest
K010 Ponderosa shrub forest
K011 Western ponderosa forest
K012 Douglas-fir forest
K013 Cedar - hemlock - pine forest
K014 Grand fir - Douglas-fir forest
K015 Western spruce - fir forest
K016 Eastern ponderosa forest
K017 Black Hills pine forest
K020 Spruce - fir - Douglas-fir forest
K023 Juniper - pinyon woodland
K029 California mixed evergreen forest
K037 Mountain mahogany - oak scrub
K038 Great Basin sagebrush
K055 Sagebrush steppe
K056 Wheatgrass - needlegrass shrubsteppe
K063 Foothills prairie
K066 Wheatgrass - needlegrass
K067 wheatgrass - bluestem - needlegrass
K070 Sandsage - bluestem prairie
K074 Bluestem prairie
K081 Oak savanna
K093 Great Lakes spruce - fir forest
K094 Conifer bog
K095 Great Lakes pine forest
K096 Northeastern spruce - fir forest
K098 Northern floodplain forest
K099 Maple - basswood forest
K106 Northern hardwoods
K107 Northern hardwoods - fir forest
K108 Northern hardwoods - spruce forest
SAF COVER TYPES :
1 Jack pine
5 Balsam fir
12 Black spruce
13 Black spruce - tamarack
16 Aspen
30 Red spruce - yellow birch
31 Red spruce - sugar maple - beech
32 Red spruce
33 Red spruce - balsam fir
35 Paper birch - red spruce - balsam fir
37 Northern white cedar
39 Black ash - American elm - red maple
42 Bur oak
62 Silver maple - American elm
107 White spruce
109 Hawthorn
201 White spruce
202 White spruce - paper birch
204 Black spruce
205 Mountain hemlock
206 Engelmann spruce - subalpine fir
210 Interior Douglas-fir
211 White fir
212 Western larch
213 Grand fir
215 Western white pine
216 Blue spruce
217 Aspen
218 Lodgepole pine
222 black cottonwood - willow
223 Sitka spruce
224 Western hemlock
225 Western hemlock - Sitka spruce
226 Coastal true fir - hemlock
227 Western redcedar - western hemlock
229 Pacific Douglas-fir
232 Redwood
235 Cottonwood - willow
236 Bur oak
237 Interior ponderosa pine
239 Pinyon - juniper
244 Pacific ponderosa pine - Douglas-fir
251 White spruce - aspen
253 Black spruce - white spruce
254 Black spruce - paper birch
256 California mixed subalpine
SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES :
NO-ENTRY
HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES :
Red-osier dogwood occurs most frequently as a riparian species within
various forest, woodland, and grassland habitat types. It is a seral
species in moist forest habitats and persists in openings. Published
classification schemes listing red-osier dogwood as an indicator species
or a dominant part of the vegetation in community types (cts), habitat
types (hts), plant associations (pas), riparian zone associations
(rzas), forest ecosystem associations (eas), dominance types (dts), or
riparian site types (rst) are presented below.
Area Classification Authority
e ID, w WY riparian cts Youngblood & others
1985a
CO: White River, grassland, shrubland Hess & Wasser 1982
Arapaho NFs and forest hts
NM: Cibola NF forest hts Alexander & others 1987
n CO, s WY forest pas Johnston 1985
wc AB forest eas Corns & Annas 1986
MT riparian dts Hansen & others 1988
sw MT riparian rst, cts, hts Hansen & others 1989
c,e MT riparian rst, cts, hts Hansen & others 1989
central MT wetland cts Pierce and Johnson 1986
WY rst Olson and Gerhart 1982
WY shrubland cts Collins 1984a
Region 2: WY, gen. veg. hts, pas Wasser and Hess 1982
SD, NE, CO, KS
Region 2: WY, gen. veg. pas Johnston 1987
SD, NE, SO, KS
n UT, s ID riparian cts Youngblood and others
1985b
s UT riparian cts Padgett & Youngblood 1986
sw MT riparian rst, cts, hts Hanson and others 1989
nNM, nAZ forest and woodland Larson & Moir 1987
hts, pas
n NM, s CO forest hts DeVelice and others 1986
CO: Gunnison and general veg. hts, cts Komarkova 1986
Uncompahgre NFs
MI, WI forest hts Coffman and others 1980
nw BC forest eas Haeussler and others 1985
c ID riparian cts, hts Tuhy and Jensen 1982
Saint Lawrence general veg. pas Dansereau 1959
Valley
VALUE AND USE
SPECIES: Cornus sericea | Red-Osier Dogwood
WOOD PRODUCTS VALUE :
NO-ENTRY
IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE :
Red-osier dogwood is used for food and cover by white-tailed deer, mule
deer, elk, moose, mountain goats, cottontail rabbits, snowshoe hares,
and numerous birds, including the bobwhite, ring-necked pheasant, wild
turkey, and grouse [41,48,82,89,105,138,155]. Red-osier dogwood fruit
is low in sugar so it is initially less attractive to wildlife and less
inclined to rot than other fruits. Consequently, the fruit stays on the
plant through the winter and is availabile when fruits of other plants
are gone [133]. In the northern Rockies, its fruit is a key grizzly
[156] and black bear food [115]. Fruit of red-osier dogwood is also
eaten by songbirds, grouse, quail, partridge, cutthroat trout, ducks,
crows, mice and other mammals [34,143]. Deer mice, meadow voles, and
other small rodents feed on the young stems and bark [104]. Beavers use
it for food and to build dams and lodges [23,54,88,103].
Red-osier dogwood is particularly important to moose in the winter; it
is also used in the summer and in the fall when leaves that have escaped
frost are particularly favored [61,73,135]. In a Minnesota study, moose
used some red-osier dogwood during the summer, but primary use was in
the fall after the stems had reddened [65,105]. Although it remained
important, it was not used as much in the winter, possibly because some
plants were covered by deep snow [65,105]. Red-osier dogwood is
valuable winter forage for elk [43,82. In Minnesota, white-tailed deer
browse it in April and May [65]. In the western United States and
Canada, mule deer use is heavy in the summer and moderate in the fall
and winter [83]. Livestock eat it, but it is not a preferred species
[28,118]. A 2-year study of summer cattle use of a riparian zone in
Oregon found use of red-osier dogwood was relatively heavy the first
year and light the second year [114].
PALATABILITY :
Leaves of red-osier dogwood are relatively unpalatable to livestock, but
the young sprouts are palatable to livestock and deer [93,118]. A study
of foliage use by captive mule deer found red-osier dogwood to be second
only to Scouler willow (Salix scouleriana) in palability, with the
highest use from August through September [124]. In Montana, mule deer
apparently prefer red-osier dogwood, since its occurrence in the diet
exceeds its abundance [30]. It is palatable to elk in northern Idaho,
although not abundant in the area [89]. For white-tailed deer in the
Black Hills palatability varies by season [59]:
Palatability
January to March high
April to June low
July to September high
October to December medium
Red-osier dogwood is a preferred moose browse in central and eastern
North America [51,79,105,155]. In the Intermountain West, it is highly
palatable to moose [61,105,132]. In Quebec, red-osier dogwood, willows
(Salix spp.), and mountain ash (Sorbus scopulina) are given the highest
palatability ratings for moose [105], and in Manitoba it is a preferred
browse species [156].
The palatability of red-osier dogwood for wildlife in several western
states is rated as follows [28,118]:
CA CO MT ND WY
Cattle poor poor fair poor poor
Sheep poor fair fair poor fair
Horses useless poor poor poor fair
Goats good-fair ---- ---- ---- ----
Pronghorn ---- ---- ---- poor poor
Elk ---- good poor ---- good
Mule deer ---- fair good poor good
White-tailed deer ---- ---- fair good good
Deer good-fair ---- ---- ---- ----
Small mammals ---- ---- ---- poor good
Small nongame birds ---- ---- fair fair good
Upland game birds ---- ---- fair ---- good
Waterfowl ---- ---- ---- ---- fair
NUTRITIONAL VALUE :
Red-osier dogwood has been rated fair in energy value and poor in
protein value in some western states [28]. The fruit is low in lipids
and sugars and classified as "low quality" [132]. Tannins in the leaves
appear to inhibit protein availability, but there appears to be little
or no inhibition of protein availability in the stems browsed in the
winter [114]. The following crude protein content and digestibilities
were found in red-osier leaves fed to mule deer [114]:
Crude protein content Apparent protein Digestible protein
(% of dry matter) digestibility (%) in feed (g/100 g)
13.44 16.27 2.19
COVER VALUE :
Red-osier dogwood provides valuable cover for birds and other small
animals, especially where it grows in thickets [124,149]. In Arizona
red-osier dogwood, along with willows, blueberry elder (Sambucus
cerulea), Rocky Mountain maple (Acer glabrum), and thin-leaf alder
(Alnus incana ssp. tenuifolia), provides nesting habitat for the dusky
flycatcher, MacGillivary warbler, orange-crowned warbler, broad-tailed
hummingbird, white-crowned sparrow, and Lincoln sparrow [10]. Red-osier
dogwood provides cover and shade that cools water temperatures in
streams for trout [124]. In the Pacific Northwest, red-osier dogwood
and other riparian species provide good mule deer fawning and
fawn-rearing areas in addition to good year-round security and thermal
cover [13,83].
The degree to which red-osier dogwood provides environmental protection
during one or more seasons for wildlife species is as follows [28]:
CO MT ND WY
Pronghorn ---- ---- poor poor
Elk ---- fair ---- fair
Mule deer ---- fair poor good
White-tailed deer ---- fair good good
Small mammals fair fair fair good
Small nongame birds fair fair fair good
Upland game birds ---- fair ---- good
Waterfowl ---- ---- ---- fair
VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES :
Red-osier dogwood is recommended for rehabilitating moist sites within
its range. It is well adapted to disturbed sites, excellent at
stabilizing soil, easy to establish, and grows rapidly [130,158]. It
need fresh, aerated water to establish and may be particularly useful in
stabilizing eroding streambanks [52,86]. Its high tolerance for oil
could make it useful on oil-damaged sites [148]. Rooted cuttings or
nursery-grown seedlings are easily established on moist, well-drained
soils and grows rapidly [54,148]. Seed production and handling are
described as "very good" [158]. On Intermountain sites, it is
moderately easy to establish from seed and spreads from seed at a
moderate rate; it also establishes readily from transplants and spreads
rapidly [158]]. Based on reports from Colorado, Wyoming, Montana, and
North Dakota, red-osier dogwood's growth is best on gentle slopes [28].
Its establishment requirements are moderate to high, and its potential
biomass production is moderate. It has moderate potential for use in
erosion control and greater potential for long-term revegetation than
for short-term revegetation [28].
Studies of rehabilitation along a Columbia River impoundment in
Washington found 5-year-old plantings of red-osier dogwood to be very
successful based on survival, growth, and use by wildlife for forage or
cover [12]. In the Tahoe Basin, establishment was fair to good and
long-term survival was good; red-osier dogwood did best on moist sites
with better soils [123]. On northwestern Montana roadcuts, red-osier
dogwood's survival and growth was good. Although plants on drier
south-facing slopes did not develop as well as those on moister sites,
they grew and survived much better than expected [64].
Cuttings of red-osier dogwood root easily without treatment and can be
directly planted providing sufficient moisture is available [29]. One
hundred percent of cuttings taken in early August were rooted in 5 weeks
and 90 percent of those taken in mid-April were rooted in 8 weeks [29].
Red-osier dogwood also readily layers [126]. Rooted stock was
recommended for a Utah forest where land managers had difficulty
stabilizing areas damaged by mudslides and flooding [146]. Rooting of
red-osier dogwood cuttings was slowed slightly by endomycorrhizal
infection in one study, but overall rooting was not affected [95].
Grasses decrease red-osier dogwood growth in containers by as much as 72
percent [145].
OTHER USES AND VALUES :
Red-osier dogwood is an attractive landscaping plant [7,134]. In the
winter its deep red stems and twigs provide color, in the spring it
produces many creamy white flowers followed by attractive white fruits,
and in the fall its leaves turn a spectacular maroon [7]. Once
established, it is drought tolerant [7] and, for gardeners in rural
areas, it is less palatable to white-tailed deer and mule deer than many
other ornamental shrubs [5,22].
The long slim stems were used by Indians for basket weaving and are
still used by present-day crafters [72]. Indians and early settlers
smoked the inner bark, stem scrapings, and leaves, which have a slightly
narcotic effect [72,93]. In Southern California the inner green cambium
layers were peeled, dried, and smoked ceremonially [23]. Indians also
used an extract from red-osier dogwood as an emetic for treating fevers
and coughs and obtained dyes from the bark and roots [93].
MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
Red-osier dogwood is especially valuable for protecting and stabilizing
streambanks because of its thick, extensive root system [52,54,153].
This is particularly important to management of higher gradient stream
channels where scouring by seasonal flooding occurs.
In a Lake States study, red-osier dogwood did not hold up under heavy
use but did well with light clipping [2]. Other studies indicate that
red-osier dogwood may increase with some browsing [107]. Following 61
percent leader use by cattle in Oregon, red-osier dogwood responded with
exceptional growth the following year when it had light use, and should
continue to do well with alternating years of moderate and light use
[114]. However, heavy and prolonged grazing in Montana ponderosa pine
(Pinus ponderosa) or cottonwood (Populus spp.) and red-osier dogwood
riparian communities may eliminate the dogwood and convert the area to a
Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis) understory [54]. Heavy grazing by
Wisconsin dairy cows eliminated red-osier dogwood from streambanks
[149]. In southwestern Montana, after moose hedging of red-osier
dogwood increased 80 to 100 percent in 2 years, forage production and
plant vigor became very low [132]. Moose browsing on Isle Royale has
reduced red-osier dogwood abundance and height [113,128].
Red-osier dogwood is most valuable to beaver in its early growth stages
when it is resprouting after fire or other disturbance [152]. Managers
find that marsh sites are excellent for beaver production but that the
beaver impoundments raise the water level to a point where red-osier
dogwood and other food plants are killed. The problem is solved
naturally when the beaver abandon the site and the plants regenerate,
but to hasten succession and provide suitable beaver habitat, red-osier
dogwood cuttings can be planted near the new pond edge [103].
Herbicides designed to weed ornamental crops also injured up to 20
percent of the tissue of red-osier dogwood plants [145]. Red-osier
dogwood can be controlled by spraying with mixtures of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T
or dicamba and either 2,4-D or 2,3,4-T [125]. Treatment with 2,4-D or
paraquat causes chlorosis and necrosis of leaves and stems and delays
spring growth [25]. Plants treated with 2,4-D and paraquat were
affected much less when they were treated after vegetative maturity (the
stage of dormancy preceding visible leaf senescence) than when treated
earlier in the year [25].
BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
SPECIES: Cornus sericea | Red-Osier Dogwood
GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS :
Red-osier dogwood is a deciduous, many-stemmed shrub which varies in
height from 3 to 19 feet (1-6 m) [60,142]. The young stems and twigs
are dark red, gradually fading to gray-green, and becoming red again in
the fall and winter [60,142]. The leaves are opposite with prominent
lateral veins that curve toward the tip and smooth edges [93]. Many,
small white flowers are borne in a flat-topped cyme and, unlike many
dogwoods, there are no large, showy bracts. The flowers are followed by
berrylike fruits that are white or lead colored at maturity [126,143].
Red-osier dogwood's wide range and ability to tolerate extremely cold
temperatures (laboratory temperatures as low as -320 degrees F [-196
degrees C]) [96,126] have prompted a number of studies of its physiology
and cold acclimation [14,15,16,17,42,56,63,74,75,76,90,91,102,119,
120,139]. Red-osier dogwood avoids freezing injury caused by ice
forming within living protoplasm by having freezable water frozen
extracellularly [96]. The factors that seem to affect cold acclimation
the most are low temperatures, short days, water stress, and the
developmental stage of the plant [15,75,76,159]. Key points in the
developmental cycle, chilling requirements, and temperature effects have
been described and modeled [75,76,119,120,159]. Far red light,
characteristic of the long twilights at high latitudes, and short day
length promote cold acclimation [90]. Water-stressed plants have an
increased tolerance of freezing and increase their freezing point [16].
In plants exposed to short days, tissue changes occur that reduce the
plant's ability to take up water and simultaneously increase water loss
so that the plant partially dehydrates even when water is plentiful
[91,102].
A study of different geographic races found that stem pubescence and
leaf size and form vary, and plant form can vary from very upright to
decumbent between races, although there are no clear patterns [126].
Growth rates of more northern races are slower under shorter
photoperiods than those of southern races growing in their own
geographic areas. Total growth of northern races was reduced because
they stopped growth and started cold acclimation earlier than more
southern races [126].
RAUNKIAER LIFE FORM :
Phanerophyte
REGENERATION PROCESSES :
Natural regeneration of red-osier dogwood is both sexual and asexual
[60,126]. The flowers of red-osier dogwood are self-sterile and
outcrossing is obligate [34,47]. This is controlled by a single,
multiallelic gene that inhibits full pollen tube growth in the style of
the plant [62]. Pollinators include the honey bee, bumble bee, solitary
bee [47] and possibly beetles, flies, and butterflies [34]. Seeds are
dispersed primarily by songbirds, although other animals including
bears, mice, grouse, quail, partridges, and even ducks and cutthroat
trout may eat the fruit and disperse seeds [34,126,143]. The seeds may
be stored in seedbanks [117]. Individual plants generally first bear
fruit at 3 to 4 years of age, but older plants are more prolific [125].
Red-osier dogwood seeds have dormant embryos and need cold
stratification for 1 to 3 months [9,55,121]. Sometimes hard seed coats
are also present and scarification is then necessary [125]. Germination
rates increased after passage through a black bear's digestive tract
[115] but were inconsistant after passage through a pheasant's digestive
tract [80]. The seeds will remain viable in cold storage for 4 to 8
years [9]. Details of seed collection and nursery germination can be
found in several studies [9,80,121,144,148].
On good sites red-osier dogwood can form dense thickets through
vegetative reproduction [48,52]. Red-osier dogwood spreads by layering
when the lower stems touch or lie along the ground and root at the nodes
[48,60]. In the northeastern United States, production of new plants
from stolons is most likely for plants in very moist situations and wet
meadows [125]. Plants may also produce new shoots from the roots and
new branches from the bases of dying branches [125]. If 27 percent or
more of the stem is girdled by small rodents, the stem will die back to
the injury, and new growth begins below that point on the stem [104].
Red-osier dogwood resprouted promptly from the roots in riparian zones
in the airfall area and more slowly in the devastated zone following the
eruption of Mount St. Helens [92].
SITE CHARACTERISTICS :
Red-osier dogwood is a characteristic species of swamps, low meadows,
and riparian zones; it is also found in forest openings, open forest
understories, and along forest margins [48,142]. It is a facultative
wetland plant [111]. It is found on warmer, more productive sites in
the taiga [141], in rich swamps [57], and generally on very rich, very
moist sites [66,116].
Red-osier dogwood's southern limits appear to be determined by high
temperatures [125]. Near its southern limit in New Mexico, it is only a
riparian species [27], and in other southwestern states and the southern
Great Plains, it is primarily a riparian species [46,70,85,143,147]. In
the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta of California, it grows just above the
tidal zone and on hummocks and higher areas of marsh in oxbows and
overflow basins [21,151]. In bluestem (Andropogon spp.) prairie in
Minnesota, red-osier dogwood grows in sedge (Carex spp.) dominated
swales that are inundated during the spring [31].
Although red-osier dogwood grows on a variety of soils, it prefers rich,
moist soils [48,56,125,150]. Ratings in several western states give
growth on gravel as fair to poor; growth on sand, sandy-loam, and loam
as good; growth on clay-loam growth as fair to good; and growth on clay
or dense clay as poor [28]. Opinions differ on its pH preference which
is given as 5.5 to 7.5 [149] or 7.0 to 8.0 [138]. It needs high levels
of mineral nutrients for vigorous growth [57,149]. Growth on acidic
soils is rated as fair in Montana and Wyoming but poor in Colorado [28].
Growth on organic soils, saline soils, sodic soils, and sodic-saline
soils in Montana, Wyoming, and Colorado is rated as poor, and optimum
soil depth is given as over 20 inches (51 cm) [28]. Soil temperatures
can change root morphology and the mineral content of the stem and
leaves of red-osier dogwood [6]. The best root growth occurs at lower
soil temperatures than the best shoot growth [6].
Red-osier dogwood can tolerate flooding and, consequently, is found on
floodplains and wetlands and is often one of the first shrubs to invade
wet meadows [48,125,129]. Its seeds germinate above water level, but
after several years growth, the plants can live with the roots submerged
in water for most of the growing season [129]. Plants on such wet sites
are found in mineral rich swamps or fens and not in ombrotrophic,
sphagnum bogs [57].
Elevation: Elevational ranges in several western states are as follows
[28,71,143]:
Minimum Maximum
feet meters feet meters
Arizona 5,000 1,524 9,000 2,743
Colorado 4,500 1,372 10,000 3,048
Montana 3,400 1,036 6,600 2,012
Utah 4,800 1,463 9,500 2,896
Wyoming 5,500 1,676 8,300 2,530
Associates: The plants most closely associated with red-osier dogwood
are willows and alders (Alnus spp.). Other plants frequently found with
red-osier dogwood include cottonwoods, aspen (Populus tremuloides),
birch (Betula spp.), Wood's rose (Rosa woodsii), gooseberries (Ribes
spp.), hawthorne (Crataegus spp.), horsetails (Equisetum spp.), thistle
(Cirsium spp.), and Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis).
SUCCESSIONAL STATUS :
Red-osier dogwood is an early to mid seral species [11,140,148] that is
supressed in shade and is not normally found in the understory of closed
canopy forests [125]. It is found in the understory of mixed open
forests [48]. Red-osier dogwood needs moderate to full sunlight [11].
A shade-frame study found that red-osier dogwood grew best in 75 percent
of full light intensity. Its natural occurrence in full sunlight may be
facilitated by its growth in wet situations where it encounters no water
stress [122].
Red-osier dogwood is a dominant understory shrub in the early
successional willow and balsam poplar (Populus balsamifera) communities
that follow oxbow lakes in Alberta, and it has 60 to 75 percent canopy
cover in these communities [140]. It is also the most important species
in the seral shrub-carrs of Wisconsin that succeed wet prairies, fens,
or sedge meadows and are followed by lowland forest or conifer swamp
[148]. Red-osier dogwood is not a primary invader in these areas. It
enters the stand later in succession and is least common in greatly
disturbed stands [148]. Red-osier dogwood is also a successional
species in this area following fire or when a bog basin is partially
drained by stream downcutting [21].
In Ontario sugar maple-beech (Acer saccharum-Fagus grandifolia) and
eastern hemlock-yellow birch (Tsuga canadensis-Betula lutea) forests,
red-osier dogwood is a pioneer in open and disturbed areas [11]. In New
York wetland forest gaps caused by American elm (Ulmus americana)
mortality, red-osier dogwood is frequent and abundant in multiple-tree
gaps but rare beneath the closed canopy and in single-tree gaps [160].
SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT :
One consequence of red-osier dogwood's wide geographic range has been
the development of geographic races with different seasonal responses.
A comparison of 21 clones from different areas grown together in a
Minnesota plot found that spring events, such as bud break, flowering,
and greening of the bark are, determined by temperature, and all of the
clones responded to the same temperature [126]. In contrast fall bud
set, red bark color, leaf abscission, and cold acclimation were
determined by photoperiod, and the geographic races responded to
different photoperiods [8,126]. This indicated genetic control and
genetic differences between the races. Not all the races were able to
acclimate in time to avoid winter cold injury in Minnesota, but once
cold acclimated, all the races were able to withstand -130 degrees F
(-90 degrees C) without injury. Another study [8], however, indicates
that clones from Montana, Oregon, and Idaho have different hardiness
levels than clones from North Dakota and Washington.
Comparisons of the timing of fall events between different climatic
races of red-osier dogwood growing at the same location in Minnesota are
as follows (Onset of rest is the point in the growth cycle beyond which
plants or cuttings moved into a favorable environment will not grow)
[127]:
Onset of Rest Red bark Color 50% leaf Abscission
Seattle, Wash. Oct. 15 Nov. 2 Nov. 6
Cadillac, Mich. Aug. 18 Oct. 10 Oct. 31
Moscow, Idaho Aug. 31 Oct. 10 Oct. 31
Wayland, Mass. Sept. 17 Oct. 4 Oct. 31
Excelsior, Minn. Aug. 30 Oct. 10 Oct. 27
Ottawa, Ontario Aug. 18 Sept. 20 Oct. 27
Madison, Wisc. Sept. 2 Oct. 3 Oct. 27
Dickinson, ND Aug. 10 Sept. 20 Oct. 21
College, Alaska Aug. 10 Aug. 10 Oct. 17
Dropmore, Manitoba Aug. 10 Sept. 19 Oct. 14
Flowering times for red-osier dogwood in some western states are as
follows [28]:
Utah Colorado Wyoming Montana North Dakota
Begining of
Anthesis: May May June May May
Anthesis: June June July July June
End of
Anthesis July July August July July
Comparisons of spring phenology in different parts of the country
include [9,47,99,131]:
Leafing Out Blooming Fruit ripe
Massachusetts May mid-July
n Minnesota June-August
n Idaho late April-May May-June late July-August
Great Plains June August-September
FIRE ECOLOGY
SPECIES: Cornus sericea | Red-Osier Dogwood
FIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS :
Red-osier dogwood is able to sprout from surviving roots or stolons and
from the base of aerial stems following fire [38,39,101,149]. It can be
killed by severe fires which cause extended heating of the upper soil
[38].
Red-osier dogwood is considered to be a semi-fire-tolerant, seed-banking
species [117]. Light fires which partially remove the duff stimulate
germination of buried seed [48]. In a northern Idaho grand fir (Abies
grandis) forest seed bank study, red-osier dogwood seed was found in the
top 2 inches (5 cm) of soil; however, viability was low (4%) [77,78].
In another postfire soil germination study, all red-osier dogwood plants
were sprouts from root fragments [1].
POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY :
survivor species; on-site surviving roots
ground-stored residual colonizer; fire-activated seed on-site in soil
FIRE EFFECTS
SPECIES: Cornus sericea | Red-Osier Dogwood
IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT :
Aboveground foliage of red-osier dogwood is usually killed by fire.
However, the roots will survive all but the most severe fires which
remove the duff and heat the upper soil for extended periods [38].
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT :
NO-ENTRY
PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE :
Red-osier dogwood generally increases following fire [1,18,39,106], and
it may invade a recently burned area from adjacent unburned areas [38].
It may take some time before resprouting red-osier dogwood regains its
former cover and volume. A Montana study in aspen found that 2 years
after prescribed burning red-osier dogwood resprouts had attained 72
percent of their prefire cover and 54 percent of their prefire volume,
while density was back to prefire levels [161].
In moist forests of British Columbia, red-osier dogwood appears to
increase in abundance following logging and burning [32,50]. It
established in a logged and burned Manitoba black spruce (Picea mariana)
stand by the fifth postfire year [18]. On Minnesota black spruce sites
most fires stimulate sprouting of red-osier dogwood, although severe
fires favor tree seedlings [1]. A study in the cedar-hemlock (Thuja
spp.-Tsuga spp.) zone of northern Idaho found no red-osier dogwood in
closed stands. It established with very slight frequency (1%) in logged
stands without fire; somewhat higher frequency (5%) in areas with both
single and multiple broadcast burns; and highest frequency (12%) in
areas that were piled and burned [94]. In a northwestern Montana
subalpine fir/queencup beadlily (Abies lasiocarpa/Clintonia uniflora)
habitat type, red-osier dogwood cover was highest (15%) in stands that
had burned 35 to 70 years ago and very low in clearcuts (0-1.4%) whether
dozer piled or not [156,157].
In Wisconsin shrub-carrs (wet ground tall-shrub communities) light to
medium fires cause resprouting in red-osier dogwood and serve to
maintain the shrub-carr [149]. Following prescribed burning in central
Wisconsin shrub-invaded sedge meadows, red-osier dogwood resprouted and
was favored over other shrubs [162].
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE :
NO-ENTRY
FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
In the northern Rockies red-osier dogwood is a common member of the
seral brushfields which occur following fire and compete with tree
seedlings [98,109]. In order to reduce brushfields on sites that are
away from streams and floodplains, the use of logging methods which
cause a relatively high amount of site disturbance followed by a fire
which removes most of the soil organic horizons is recommended [109].
In northwestern Montana, clearcutting alone apparantly dislodged enough
roots of red-osier dogwood so that few plants were able to sprout
[156,157].
Postfire sprouts in the early stages of growth are the most valuable for
beaver [103,152]. Following fire in Minnesota, red-osier dogwood became
more important to moose and white-tailed deer, even though it grew only
near streams and was not abundant within the burn [65].
REFERENCES
SPECIES: Cornus sericea | Red-Osier Dogwood
REFERENCES :
1. Aksamit, Scott E.; Irving, Frank D. 1984. Prescribed burning for lowland
black spruce regeneration in northern Minnesota. Canadian Journal of
Forest Research. 14: 107-113. [7298]
2. Aldous, Shaler E. 1952. Deer browse clipping study in the Lake States
Region. Journal of Wildlife Management. 16(4): 401-409. [6826]
3. Alexander, Billy G., Jr.; Fitzhugh, E. Lee; Ronco, Frank, Jr.; Ludwig,
John A. 1987. A classification of forest habitat types of the northern
portion of the Cibola National Forest, New Mexico. Gen. Tech. Rep.
RM-143. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 35 p.
[4207]
4. Archibold, O. W. 1979. Buried viable propagules as a factor in postfire
regeneration in northern Saskatchewan. Canadian Journal of Botany. 57:
54-58. [5934]
5. Austin, D. D.; Hash, A. B. 1988. Minimizing browsing damage by deer:
Landscape planning for wildlife. Utah Science. Fall: 66-70. [6341]
6. Barr, W.; Pellett, H. 1972. Effect of soil temperature on growth and
development of some woody plant plants. Journal of the American Society
of Horticultural Science. 97(5): 632-635. [7430]
7. Barry, W. James. 1988. Some uses of riparian species in the landscape
and for revegetation. In: Rieger, John P.; Williams, Bradford K., eds.
Proceedings of the second native plant revegetation symposium; 1987
April 15-18; San Diego, CA. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin -
Arboretum, Society of Ecological Restoration & Management: 164-168.
[4111]
8. Bray, Elizabeth A.; Parsons, Lawrence R. 1981. Clonal variations in the
water relations of red oiser dogwood during cold acclimation. Canadian
Journal of Plant Science. 61: 351-363. [25914]
9. Brinkman, Kenneth A. 1974. Cornus L. dogwood. In: Schopmeyer, C. S.,
technical coordinator. Seeds of woody plants in the United States.
Agric. Handb. 450. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Forest Service: 336-342. [7593]
10. Brown, David E.; Lowe, Charles H.; Hausler, Janet F. 1977. Southwestern
riparian communities: their biotic importance and management in Arizona.
In: Johnson, R. Roy; Jones, Dale A., tech. coords. Importance,
preservation and management of riparian habitat: a symposium:
Proceedings; 1977 July 9; Tucson, AZ. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-43. Fort
Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky
Mountain Forest and Range Experiment 201-211. [5348]
11. Carleton, T. J.; Taylor, S. J. 1983. The structure and composition of a
wooded urban ravine system. Canadian Journal of Botany. 61: 1392-1401.
[8375]
12. Carson, Robert G.; Edgerton, Paul J. 1989. Creating riparian wildlife
habitat along a Columbia River impoundment in northcentral Washington.
In: Wallace, Arthur; McArthur, E. Durant; Haferkamp, Marshall R.,
compilers. Proceedings--symposium on shrub ecophysiology and
biotechnology; 1987 June 30 - July 2; Logan, UT. Gen. Tech. Rep.
INT-256. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Intermountain Research Station: 64-69. [5924]
13. Carson, Robert G.; Peek, James M. 1987. Mule deer habitat selection
patterns in northcentral Washington. Journal of Wildlife Management.
51(1): 46-51. [608]
14. Chen, Paul M.; Li, Paul H. 1977. Induction of frost hardiness in stem
cortical tissues of Cornus stolonifera Michx. by water stress. Plant
Physiology. 59: 240-243. [21734]
15. Chen, H.; Li, P. H. 1978. Interactions of low temperature, water stress,
and short days in the induction of stem frost hardiness in red osier
dogwood. Plant Physiology. 62: 833-835. [7558]
16. Chen, P. M.; Li, P. H.; Burke, M. J. 1977. Induction of frost hardiness
in stem cortical tissues of Cornus stolonifera Michx. by water stress.
Plant Physiology. 59: 236-239. [7473]
17. Chen, P; Li, P. H.; Weiser, C. J. 1975. Induction of frost hardiness in
red-osier dogwood stems by water stress. Hortscience. 10(4): 372-374.
[7472]
18. Chrosciewicz, Z. 1976. Burning for black spruce regeneration on a
lowland cutover site in southeastern Manitoba. Canadian Journal of
Forest Research. 6(2): 179-186. [7280]
19. Coffman, Michael S.; Alyanak, Edward; Resovsky, Richard. 1980. Field
guide habitat classification system: For Upper Peninsula of Michigan and
northeast Wisconsin. [Place of publication unknown]: Cooperative
Research on Forest Soils. 112 p. [8997]
20. Collins, Ellen I. 1984. Preliminary classification of Wyoming plant
communities. Cheyenne, WY: Wyoming Natural Heritage Program/The Nature
Conservancy. 42 p. [661]
21. Conard, Susan G.; MacDonald, Rod L.; Holland, Robert F. 1980. Riparian
vegetation and flora of the Sacramento Valley. In: Sands, Anne, editor.
Riparian forests in California: Their ecology and conservation:
Symposium proceedings; 1977 May 14; Davis, CA. Davis, CA: University of
California, Division of Agricultural Sciences: 47-55. [5285]
22. Conover, M. R.; Kania, G. S. 1988. Browsing preference of white-tailed
deer for different ornamental species. Wildlife Society Bulletin. 16:
175-179. [8933]
23. Conrad, C. Eugene. 1987. Common shrubs of chaparral and associated
ecosystems of southern California. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-99. Berkeley, CA:
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest
and Range Experiment Station. 86 p. [4209]
24. Corns, I. G. W.; Annas, R. M. 1986. Field guide to forest ecosystems of
west-central Alberta. Edmonton, AB: Canadian Forestry Service, Northern
Forestry Centre. 251 p. [8998]
25. Crabtree, G.; Fuchigami, L. H. 1979. Vegetative maturity of red-osier
dogwood and response to herbicides. HortScience. 14(6): 753-755. [9001]
26. DeVelice, Robert L.; Ludwig, John A.; Moir, William H.; Ronco, Frank,
Jr. 1986. A classification of forest habitat types of northern New
Mexico and southern Colorado. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-131. Fort Collins, CO:
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest
and Range Experiment Station. 59 p. [781]
27. Dick-Peddie, William A.; Hubbard, John P. 1977. Classification of
riparian vegetation. In: Johnson, R. Roy; Jones, Dale A., technical
coordinators. Importance, preservation and management of riparian
habitat: a symposium: Proceedings; 1977 July 9; Tucson, AZ. Gen. Tech.
Rep. RM-43. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 85-90.
Available from: NTIS, Springfield, VA 22151; PB-274 582. [5338]
28. Dittberner, Phillip L.; Olson, Michael R. 1983. The plant information
network (PIN) data base: Colorado, Montana, North Dakota, Utah, and
Wyoming. FWS/OBS-83/86. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior,
Fish and Wildlife Service. 786 p. [806]
29. Doran, William L. 1957. Propagation of woody plants by cuttings.
Experiment Station Bul. No. 491. Amherst, MA: University of
Massachusetts, College of Agriculture. 99 p. [6399]
30. Dusek, Gary L. 1975. Range relations of mule deer and cattle in prairie
habitat. Journal of Wildlife Management. 39(3): 605-616. [5938]
31. Dziadyk, Bohdan; Clambey, Gary K. 1983. Floristic composition of plant
communities in a western Minnesota tallgrass prairie. In: Kucera, Clair
L., ed. Proceedings, 7th North American prairie conference; 1980 August
4-6; Springfield, MO. Columbia, MO: University of Missouri: 45-54.
[3194]
32. Eis, S. 1981. Effect of vegetative competition on regeneration of white
spruce. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 11: 1-8. [10104]
33. Eyde, R. H. 1987. The case for keeping Cornus in the broad Linnaean
sense. Systematic Botany. 12(4): 505-518. [8926]
34. Eyde, Richard H. 1988. Comprehending Cornus: puzzles and progress in the
systematics of the dogwoods. Botanical Review. 54(3): 233-351. [6144]
35. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and
Canada. Washington, DC: Society of American Foresters. 148 p. [905]
36. Ferguson, I. K. 1966. Notes on the nomenclature of Cornus. Journal of
the Arnold Arboretum. 47: 100-105. [7614]
37. Ferguson, I. K. 1966. The Cornaceae in the southeastern United States.
Journal of the Arnold Arboretum. 47: 106-116. [7616]
38. Fischer, William C.; Bradley, Anne F. 1987. Fire ecology of western
Montana forest habitat types. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-223. Ogden, UT: U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research
Station. 95 p. [633]
39. Fischer, William C.; Clayton, Bruce D. 1983. Fire ecology of Montana
forest habitat types east of the Continental Divide. Gen. Tech. Rep.
INT-141. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 83 p. [923]
40. Fosberg, F. R. 1942. Cornus sericea L. (C. stolonifera Michx.). Bulletin
of the Torrey Botanical Club. 69(8): 583-589. [7613]
41. Freedman, June D. 1983. The historical relationship between fire and
plant succession within the Swan Valley white-tailed deer winter range,
western Montana. Missoula, MT: University of Montana. 139 p.
Dissertation. [6486]
42. Fuchigami, L. H.; Weiser, C. J.; Evert, D. R. 1971. Induction of cold
acclimation in Cornus stolonifera Michx. Plant Physiology. 47: 98-103.
[7554]
43. Gaffney, William S. 1941. The effects of winter elk browsing, south fork
of the Flathead River, Montana. Journal of Wildlife Management. 5(4):
427-453. [5028]
44. Garrison, George A.; Bjugstad, Ardell J.; Duncan, Don A.; [and others].
1977. Vegetation and environmental features of forest and range
ecosystems. Agric. Handb. 475. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service. 68 p. [998]
45. Gleason, H. A.; Cronquist, A. 1963. Manual of vascular plants of
northeastern United States and adjacent Canada. Princeton, NJ: D. Van
Nostrand Company, Inc. 810 p. [7065]
46. Great Plains Flora Association. 1986. Flora of the Great Plains.
Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas. 1392 p. [1603]
47. Gunatilleke, C. V. S.; Gunatilleke, I. A. U. N. 1984. Some observations
on the reproductive biology of three species of Cornus (Cornaceae).
Journal of the Arnold Arboretum. 65: 419-427. [7617]
48. Haeussler, S.; Coates, D. 1986. Autecological characteristics of
selected species that compete with conifers in British Columbia: a
literature review. Land Management Report No. 33. Victoria, BC: Ministry
of Forests, Information Services Branch. 180 p. [1055]
49. Haeussler, S.; Pojar, J.; Geisler, B. M.; [and others]. 1985. A guide to
the interior cedar-hemlock zone, northwestern transitional subzone
(ICHg), in the Prince Rupert Forest Region, British Columbia. Land
Management Report Number 26; ISSN 0702-9861. Victoria, BC: British
Columbia, Ministry of Forests. 263 p. [6930]
50. Hamilton, Evelyn H. 1988. Impacts of prescribed burning on
soil-vegetation relationships in the sub-boreal spruce zone. In: Feller,
M. C.; Thomson, S. M., eds. Wildlife and range prescribed burning
workshop proceedings; 1987 October 27-28; Richmond, BC. Vancouver, BC:
The University of British Columbia, Faculty of Forestry: 171-184.
[3110]
51. Hansen, H. L.; Krefting, L. W.; Kurmis, V. 1973. The forest of Isle
Royale in relation to fire history and wildlife. Tech. Bull. 294;
Forestry Series 13. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota,
Agricultural Experiment Station. 44 p. [8120]
52. Hansen, Paul L.; Chadde, Steve W.; Pfister, Robert D. 1988. Riparian
dominance types of Montana. Misc. Publ. No. 49. Missoula, MT: University
of Montana, School of Forestry, Montana Forest and Conservation
Experiment Station. 411 p. [5660]
53. Hansen, Paul; Pfister, Robert; Boggs, Keith; [and others]. 1989.
Classification and management of riparian sites in central and eastern
Montana. Missoula, MT: University of Montana, School of Forestry,
Montana Riparian Association. 368 p. Draft Version 1. [8934]
54. Hansen, Paul; Pfister, Robert; Joy, John; [and others]. 1989.
Classification and management of riparian sites in southwestern Montana.
Missoula, MT: University of Montana, School of Forestry, Montana
Riparian Association. 292 p. Draft Version 2. [8900]
55. Hansen, Dennis J. 1989. Reclamation and erosion control using shrubs.
In: McKell, Cyrus M, ed. The biology and utilization of shrubs. Chapter
21. San Diego, CA: Academic Press, INC: 459-478. [8044]
56. Harrison, L. C.; Weiser, C. J.; Burke, M. J. 1978. Environmental and
seasonal factors affecting the frost-induced stage of cold acclimation
in Cornus stolonifera Michx. Plant Physiol. 62: 894-898. [7555]
57. Heinselman, M. L. 1970. Landscape evolution, peatland types and the
environment in the Lake Agassiz Peatlands Natural Area, Minnesota.
Ecological Monographs. 40(2): 235-261. [8378]
58. Hess, Karl; Wasser, Clinton H. 1982. Grassland, shrubland, and
forestland habitat types of the White River-Arapaho National Forest.
Final Report. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 335 p.
[1142]
59. Hill, Ralph R. 1946. Palatability ratings of Black Hills plants for
white-tailed deer. Journal of Wildlife Management. 10(1): 47-54. [3270]
60. Hitchcock, C. Leo; Cronquist, Arthur. 1961. Vascular plants of the
Pacific Northwest. Part 3: Saxifragaceae to Ericaceae. Seattle, WA:
University of Washington Press. 614 p. [1167]
61. Houston, Douglas B. 1968. The Shiras Moose in Jackson Hole, Wyoming.
Tech. Bull. No. 1. [Place of publication unknown]: The Grand Teton
Natural History Association. 110 p. [7824]
62. Hummel, R. L.; Ascher, P. D.; Pellett, H. M. 1982. Genetic control of
self-incompatibility in red-osier dogwood. Journal of Heredity. 73:
308-309. [8863]
63. Hummel, R. L.; Pellett, M.; Parsons, L. 1979. Variability associated
with leaf water potential in red-osier dogwood in field and growth
chamber environments. Canadian Journal of Plant Science. 59: 847-852.
[7445]
64. Hungerford, Roger D. 1984. Native shrubs: suitability for revegetating
road cuts in northwestern Montana. Res. Pap. INT-331. Ogden, UT: U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and
Range Experiment Station. 13 p. [1220]
65. Irwin, Larry L. 1985. Foods of moose, Alces alces, and white-tailed
deer, Odocoileus virginianus, on a burn in boreal forest. Canadian
Field-Naturalist. 99(2): 240-245. [4513]
66. Jeglum, John K. 1971. Plant indicators of pH and water level in
peatlands at Candle Lake, Saskatchewan. Canadian Journal of Botany. 49:
1661-1676. [7450]
67. Johnston, Barry C. 1985. Key to the forested plant associations of
northern Colorado and southern Wyoming. Lakewood, CO: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Region. 30 p. [1296]
68. Johnston, Barry C. 1987. Plant associations of Region Two: Potential
plant communities of Wyoming, South Dakota, Nebraska, Colorado, and
Kansas. 4th ed. R2-ECOL-87-2. Lakewood, CO: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Region. 429 p. [3519]
69. Kartesz, John T.; Kartesz, Rosemarie. 1980. A synonymized checklist of
the vascular flora of the United States, Canada, and Greenland. Volume
II: The biota of North America. Chapel Hill, NC: The University of North
Carolina Press; in confederation with Anne H. Lindsey and C. Richie
Bell, North Carolina Botanical Garden. 500 p. [6954]
70. Katibah, Edwin F.; Nedeff, Nicole E.; Dummer, Kevin J. 1984. Summary of
riparian vegetation aerial and linear extent measurements from the
Central Valley Riparian Mapping Project. In: Warner, Richard E.;
Hendrix, Kathleen M., eds. California riparian systems: Ecology,
conservation, and productive management: Proceedings of the conference;
1981 September 17-19; Davis, CA. Berkeley, CA: University of California
Press: 46-50. [5824]
71. Kearney, Thomas H.; Peebles, Robert H.; Howell, John Thomas; McClintock,
Elizabeth. 1960. Arizona flora. 2d ed. Berkeley, CA: University of
California Press. 1085 p. [6563]
72. Kelly, George W. 1970. A guide to the woody plants of Colorado. Boulder,
CO: Pruett Publishing Co. 180 p. [6379]
73. Knowlton, Frederick F. 1960. Food habits, movements and populations of
moose in the Gravelly Mountains, Montana. Journal of Wildlife
Management. 24(2): 162-170. [6245]
74. Kobayashi, K.; Fuchigami, L.; Brainerd, K. 1980. Dormancy stages and
cold hardiness of red-osier dogwood. Hortscience. 15(3): 77. [7474]
75. Kobayashi, K. D.; Fuchigami, L. H.; English, M. J. 1982. Modeling
temperature requirements for rest development in Cornus sericea. J.
Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 107(5): 914-918. [7557]
76. Kobayashi, K. D.; Fuchigami, L. H.; Weiser, C. J. 1983. Modeling cold
hardiness of red-osier dogwood. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 108(3):
376-381. [7556]
77. Kramer, Neal B. 1984. Mature forest seed banks on three habitat types in
central Idaho. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho. 106 p. Thesis. [1375]
78. Kramer, Neal B.; Johnson, Frederic D. 1987. Mature forest seed banks of
three habitat types in central Idaho. Canadian Journal of Botany. 65:
1961-1966. [3961]
79. Krefting, Laurtis W. 1974. The ecology of the Isle Royale Moose with
special reference to the habitat. Tech. Bull. 297, Forestry Series 15.
Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota, Agricultural Experiment
Station. 75 p. [8678]
80. Krefting, Laurits W.; Roe, Eugene I. 1949. The role of some birds and
mammals in seed germination. Ecological Monographs. 19(3): 269-286.
[8847]
81. Kuchler, A. W. 1964. Manual to accompany the map of potential vegetation
of the conterminous United States. Special Publication No. 36. New York:
American Geographical Society. 77 p. [1384]
82. Kufeld, Roland C. 1973. Foods eaten by the Rocky Mountain elk. Journal
of Range Management. 26(2): 106-113. [1385]
83. Kufeld, Roland C.; Wallmo, O. C.; Feddema, Charles. 1973. Foods of the
Rocky Mountain mule deer. Res. Pap. RM-111. Fort Collins, CO: U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and
Range Experiment Station. 31 p. [1387]
84. Leckenby, Donavin A.; Sheehy, Dennis P.; Nellis, Carl H.; [and others].
1982. Wildlife habitats in managed rangelands--the Great Basin of
southeastern Oregon: mule deer. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-139. Portland, OR:
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest
and Range Experiment Station. 40 p. [1432]
85. Lewis, Mont E. 1971. Flora and major plant communities of the Ruby-East
Humboldt Mountains with special emphasis on Lamoille Canyon. Elko, NV:
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Region 4, Humboldt
National Forest. 62 p. [1450]
86. Lines, Ivan L., Jr.; Carlson, Jack R.; Corthell, Robert A. 1979.
Repairing flood-damaged streams in the Pacific Northwest. In: Johnson,
R. Roy; McCormick, J. Frank, technical coordinators. Strategies for
protection and management of floodplain wetlands & other riparian
ecosystems: Proc. of the symposium; 1978 December 11-13; Callaway
Gardens, GA. Gen. Tech. Rep. WO-12. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service: 195-200. [4361]
87. Lyon, L. Jack; Stickney, Peter F. 1976. Early vegetal succession
following large northern Rocky Mountain wildfires. In: Proceedings, Tall
Timbers fire ecology conference and Intermountain Fire Research Council
fire and land management symposium; 1974 October 8-10; Missoula, MT. No.
14. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research Station: 355-373. [1496]
88. Martin, Alexander C.; Zim, Herbert S.; Nelson, Arnold L. 1951. American
wildlife and plants. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. 500 p.
[4021]
89. McCulloch, Clay Y., Jr. 1955. Utilization of winter browse on wilderness
big game range. Journal of Wildlife Management. 19(2): 206-215. [7933]
90. McKenzie, J. S.; Weiser, C. J.; Burke, M. J. 1974. Effects of red and
far red light on the initiation of cold acclimation in Cornus
stolonifera Michx. Plant Physiol. 53: 783-789. [8373]
91. McKenzie, J. S.; Weiser, C. J.; Li, P. H. 1974. Changes in water
relations of Cornus stolonifera during cold acclimation. Journal of the
American Society of Horticultural Science. 99: 223-228. [7560]
92. Means, Joseph E.; McKee, W. Arthur; Moir, William H.; Franklin, Jerry F.
1982. Natural revegetation of the northeastern portion of the devestated
area. In: Keller, S. A, C.; ed. Mount St. Helens: one year later:
Proceedings of a symposium; 1981 May 17-18; Cheney, WA. Cheney, WA:
Eastern Washington University Press: 93-103. [5977]
93. Mozingo, Hugh N. 1987. Shrubs of the Great Basin: A natural history.
Reno, NV: University of Nevada Press. 342 p. [1702]
94. Mueggler, Walter F. 1965. Ecology of seral shrub communities in the
cedar-hemlock zone of northern Idaho. Ecological Monographs. 35:
165-185. [4016]
95. Nelson, S. D. 1987. Rooting and subsequent growth of woody ornamental
softwood cuttings treated with endomycorrhizal inoculum. Journal of the
American Society of Horticultural Science. 112(2): 263-266. [8377]
96. Newton, Ronald J.; Goodin, Joseph R. 1989. Temperature stress
adaptation. In: McKell, Cyrus M, ed. The biology and utilization of
shrubs. Chapter 17. San Diego, CA: Academic Press, INC: 385-402. [8042]
97. Olson, R. A.; Gerhart, W. A. 1982. A physical and biological
characterization of riparian habitat and its importance to wildlife in
Wyoming. Cheyenne, WY: Wyoming Game and Fish Department. 188 p. [6755]
98. Orme, Mark L.; Leege, Thomas A. 1976. Emergence and survival of redstem
(Ceanothus sanguineus) following prescribed burning. In: Proceedings,
annual Tall Timbers fire ecology conference; 1974 October 8-10;
Misssoula, Montana. No. 14. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research
Station: 391-420. [6273]
99. Orme, Mark L.; Leege, Thomas A. 1980. Phenology of shrubs on a north
Idaho elk range. Northwest Science. 54(3): 187-198. [1800]
100. Padgett, W. G.; Youngblood, A. P. 1986. Riparian community type
classification of southern Utah. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Region, Ecology and
Classification Program. 57 p. [Preliminary draft]. [5899]
101. Parminter, John. 1983. Fire-ecological relationships for the
biogeoclimatic zones and subzones of the Fort Nelson Timber Supply Area.
In: Northern Fire Ecology Project: Fort Nelson Timber Supply Area.
Victoria, BC: Province of British Columbia, Ministry of Forests. 122 p.
[1821]
102. Parsons, L. R. 1978. Water relations stomatal behavior and root
conductivity of red osier dogwood during acclimation to freezing
temperatures. Plant Physiol. 62: 64-70. [7561]
103. Patric, E. F.; Webb, W. L. 1953. A preliminary report on intensive
beaver management. North American Wildlife Conference. 18(33): 533-539.
[8376]
104. Pauls, Ronald W. 1986. Protection with vexar cylinders from damage by
meadow voles of tree and shrub seedlings in northeastern Alberta. In:
Salmon, Terrell P.; Marsh, Rex E.; Beadle, Dorothy E., eds.
Proceedings--12th vertebrate pest conference; 1986 March 4-6; San Diego,
CA. Davis, CA: University of California: 199-204. [4001]
105. Peek, J. M. 1974. A review of moose food habits studies in North
America. Le Naturaliste Canadien. 101: 195-215. [7420]
106. Perala, Donald A. 1974. Prescribed burning in an aspen-mixed hardwood
forest. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 4: 222-228. [5816]
107. Perala, Donald A. 1979. Regeneration and productivity of aspen grown on
repeated short rotations. Research Paper NC-176. St. Paul, MN: U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Forest
Experiment Station. 7 p. [3400]
108. Pierce, John; Johnson, Janet. 1986. Wetland community type
classification for west-central Montana. Missoula, MT: U.S. Department
of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northern Region, Ecosystem Management
Program. 158 p. [Review draft]. [7436]
109. Pojar, J.; Trowbridge, R.; Coates, D. 1984. Ecosystem classification and
interpretation of the sub-boreal spruce zone, Prince Rupert Forest
Region, British Columbia. Land Management Report No. 17. Victoria, BC:
Province of British Columbia, Ministry of Forests. 319 p. [6929]
110. Raunkiaer, C. 1934. The life forms of plants and statistical plant
geography. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 632 p. [2843]
111. Reed, Porter B., Jr. 1986. 1986 wetland plant list, Montana. St.
Petersburg, FL: U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife
Service, National Wetlands Inventory. 26 p. [8381]
112. Rickett, H. W. 1945. Cornaceae. North American Flora. 28B: 299-317.
[7612]
113. Risenhoover, Kenneth L.; Maass, Steven A. 1987. The influence of moose
on the composition and structure of Isle Royale forests. Canadian
Journal of Forest Research. 17: 357-364. [8230]
114. Roath, Leonard Roy; Krueger, William C. 1982. Cattle grazing influence
on a mountain riparian zone. Journal of Range Management. 35(1):
100-103. [6244]
115. Rogers, Lynn L.; Applegate, Rodger D. 1983. Dispersal of fruit seeds by
black bears. Journal of Mammalogy. 64(2): 310-311. [5941]
116. Rowe, J. S. 1956. Uses of undergrowth plant species in forestry.
Ecology. 37(3): 461-473. [8862]
117. Rowe, J. S. 1983. Concepts of fire effects on plant individuals and
species. In: Wein, Ross W.; MacLean, David A., eds. SCOPE 18: The role
of fire in northern circumpolar ecosystems. Chichester; New York: John
Wiley & Sons: 135-154. [2038]
118. Sampson, Arthur W.; Jespersen, Beryl S. 1963. California range
brushlands and browse plants. Berkeley, CA: University of California,
Division of Agricultural Sciences, California Agricultural Experiment
Station, Extension Service. 162 p. [3240]
119. Seibel, J. R.; Fuchigami, L. H. 1978. The relationship between
vegetative maturity and the onset of winter dormancy in red-osier
dogwood. Journal of the American Society of Horticultural Science.
103(6): 737-739. [7562]
120. Seibel, J. R.; Fuchigami, L. H. 1978. Ethylene production as an
indicator of seasonal development in red-osier dogwood. J. Amer. Soc.
Hort. Sci. 103(6): 739-741. [7559]
121. Shaw, N. 1984. Producing bareroot seedlings of native shrubs. In:
Murphy, P. M., compiler. The challenge of producing native plants for
the Intermountain area: Proceedings, Intermountain Nurseryman's
Association conference; 1983 August 8-11; Las Vegas, NV. Gen. Tech. Rep.
INT-168. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 6-15. [6850]
122. Sheppard, R.; Pellett, H. 1976. Light intensity effects on redosier
dogwood. HortScience. 11(3): 200-202. [7565]
123. Slayback, Robert D.; Clary, Raimond F., Jr. 1988. Vegetative solutions
to erosion control in the Tahoe Basin. In: Rieger, John P.; Williams,
Bradford K., eds. Proceedings of the second native plant revegetation
symposium; 1987 April 15-18; San Diego, CA. Madison, WI: University of
Wisconsin - Arboretum, Society of Ecological Restoration & Management:
66-69. [4097]
124. Smith, Arthur D. 1953. Consumption of native forage species by captive
mule deer during summer. Journal of Range Management. 6: 30-37. [2161]
125. Smithberg, Margaret. 1974. Red-oiser dogwood. In: Gill, John D.; Healy,
William, compilers. Shrubs and vines for northeastern wildlife. Gen.
Tech. Rep. NE-9. Upper Darby, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station: 44-47. [25913]
126. Smith, Stanley D.; Murray, Kevin J.; Landau, Frederick H.; Sala, Anna M.
1995. Structure of woody riparian vegetation in Great Basin National
Park. In: Roundy, Bruce A.; McArthur, E. Durant; Halllley, Jennifer S.;
Mann, David K, compilers. Proceedings: wildland shrub and arid land
restoration symposium; 1993 October 19-21; Las Vegas, NV. Gen. Tech.
Rep. INT-GTR-315. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service, Intermountain Research Station: 246-251. [24856]
127. Smithberg, M. H.; Weiser, C. J. 1968. Patterns of variation among
climatic races of red-osier dogwood. Ecology. 49(3): 495-505. [7564]
128. Snyder, J. D.; Janke, R. A. 1976. Impact of moose browsing on
boreal-type forests of Isle Royale National Park. American Midland
Naturalist. 95(1): 79-92. [8119]
129. Stallard, Harvey. 1929. Secondary succession in the climax forest
formations of northern Minnesota. Ecology. 10(4): 476-547. [3808]
130. Stark, N. 1966. Review of highway planting information appropriate to
Nevada. Bull. No. B-7. Reno, NV: University of Nevada, College of
Agriculture, Desert Research Institute. 209 p. In cooperation with:
Nevada State Highway Department. [47]
131. Stephens, H. A. 1973. Woody plants of the North Central Plains.
Lawrence, KS: The University Press of Kansas. 530 p. [3804]
132. Stevens, David R. 1970. Winter ecology of moose in the Gallatin
Mountains, Montana. Journal of Wildlife Management. 34(1): 37-46.
[7932]
133. Stiles, Edmund W. 1980. Patterns of fruit presentation and seed
dispersal in bird-disseminated woody plants in the Eastern deciduous
forest. American Naturalist. 116(5): 670-688. [6508]
134. Sutton, Richard F.; Johnson, Craig W. 1974. Landscape plants from Utah's
mountains. EC-368. Logan, UT: Utah State University, Cooperative
Extension Service. 135 p. [49]
135. Timmermann, H. R.; McNicol, J. G. 1988. Moose habitat needs. Forestry
and wildlife management in the boreal forest--an Ontario workshop; 1987
December 7-9; Thunder Bay, ON. In: The Forestry Chronicle. 1988 June:
238-245. [5118]
136. Tuhy, Joel S.; Jensen, Sherman. 1982. Riparian classification for the
Upper Salmon/Middle Fork Salmon River drainages, Idaho. Smithfield, UT:
White Horse Associates. Final Report, Contract with U.S.S. Forest
Service, Region 4. 153 p. [8380]
137. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service. 1982.
National list of scientific plant names. Vol. 1. List of plant names.
SCS-TP-159. Washington, DC. 416 p. [11573]
138. Van Dersal, William R. 1938. Native woody plants of the United States,
their erosion-control and wildlife values. Washington, DC: U.S.
Department of Agriculture. 362 p. [4240]
139. Van Huystee, R. B.; Weiser, C. J.; Li, P. H. 1967. Cold acclimation in
Cornus stolonifera under natural and controlled photoperiod and
temperature. Botatical Gazette. 128: 200-205. [7552]
140. van der Valk, A. G.; Bliss, L. C. 1971. Hydrarch succession and net
primary production of oxbow lakes in central Alberta. Canadian Journal
of Botany. 49(7): 1177-1199. [3244]
141. Viereck, Leslie A. 1975. Forest ecology of the Alaska taiga. In:
Proceedings of the circumpolar conference on northern ecology; 1975
September 15-18; Ottawa, ON. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service: 1-22. [7315]
142. Viereck, Leslie A.; Little, Elbert L., Jr. 1972. Alaska trees and
shrubs. Agric. Handb. 410. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service. 265 p. [6884]
143. Vines, Robert A. 1960. Trees, shrubs, and woody vines of the Southwest.
Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. 1104 p. [7707]
144. Vories, Kimery C. 1981. Growing Colorado plants from seed: a state of
the art. Volume I. Shrubs. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-103. Ogden, UT: U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and
Range Experiment Station. 80 p. [3426]
145. Walker, Kandy L.; Williams, David J. 1988. Grass interference in
container-grown Bailey's redosier dogwood (Cornus x baileyi). Weed
Science. 36: 621-624. [8861]
146. Ward, Don; Thompson, Robert; Kelly, Dennis. 1986. Willow planting guide.
R-4 Hydrograph No. 54. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service, Range and Watershed Management. 12 p. [2936]
147. Warner, Richard E. 1984. Structural, floristic, and condition inventory
of central valley riparian systems. In: Warner, Richard E.; Hendrix,
Kathleen M., eds. California riparian systems: Ecology, conservation,
and productive management: Proceedings of a conference; 1981 September
17-19; Davis, CA. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press: 356-374.
[5840]
148. Watson, L. E.; Parker, R. W.; Polster, D. F. 1980. Manual of plant
species suitablity for reclamation in Alberta. Vol. 2. Forbs, shrubs and
trees. Edmonton, AB: Land Conservation and Reclamation Council. 537 p.
[8855]
149. White, Keith L. 1965. Shrub-carrs of southeastern Wisconsin. Ecology.
46(3): 286-304. [8858]
150. Wilde, S. A. 1946. Soil-fertility standards for game food plants.
Journal of Wildlife Management. 10(2): 77-81. [8865]
151. Whitlow, Thomas H.; Harris, Richard W.; Leiser, Andrew T. 1984.
Experimenting with levee vegetation: some unexpected findings. In:
Warner, Richard E.; Hendrix, Kathleen M., eds. California riparian
systems: Ecology, conservation, and productive management: Proceedings
of a conference; 1981 September 17-19; Davis, CA. Berkeley, CA:
University of California Press: 558-565. [5858]
152. Wright, Henry A.; Bailey, Arthur W. 1982. Fire ecology: United States
and southern Canada. New York: John Wiley & Sons. 501 p. [2620]
153. Youngblood, Andrew P.; Padgett, Wayne G.; Winward, Alma H. 1985.
Riparian community type classification of eastern Idaho - western
Wyoming. R4-Ecol-85-01. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Forest Service, Intermountain Region. 78 p. [2686]
154. Youngblood, Andrew P.; Padgett, Wayne G.; Winward, Alma H. 1985.
Riparian community type classification of northern Utah and adjacent
Idaho. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Intermountain Region, Ecology and Classification Program. 104 p.
[Preliminary draft]. [3054]
155. Zach, R.; Crichton, V. F. J.; Stewart, J. M.; Mayoh, K. R. 1982. Early
winter food habits of Manitoba moose as determined by three rumen
analysis methods. Canadian Journal of Zoology. 60(6): 1300-1304. [6988]
156. Zager, Peter Edward. 1980. The influence of logging and wildfire on
grizzly bear habitat in northwestern Montana. Missoula, MT: University
of Montana. 131 p. Dissertation. [5032]
157. Zager, Peter; Jonkel, Charles; Habeck, James. 1983. Logging and wildfire
influence on grizzly bear habitat in northwestern Montana. In: Meslow,
E. Charles, ed. 5th International conference on bear research and
management; [Date of conference unknown]; Madison, WI. [Place of
publication unknown]. International Association for Bear Research and
Management: 124-132. [5500]
158. Plummer, A. Perry. 1977. Revegetation of disturbed Intermountain area
sites. In: Thames, J. C., ed. Reclamation and use of disturbed lands of
the Southwest. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press: 302-337. [171]
159. Kobayashi, K. D.; Fuchigami, L. H. 1983. Modeling temperature effects in
breaking rest in red-osier dogwood (Corn (Cornus sericea L.). Annals of
Botany. 52: 205-215. [7563]
160. Huenneke, Laura Foster. 1983. Understory response to gaps caused by the
death of Ulmus americanus in central New York. Bulletin of the Torrey
Botanical Club. 110(2): 170-175. [4934]
161. Gordon, Floyd A. 1976. Spring burning in an aspen-conifer stand for
maintenance of moose habitat, West Boulder River, Montana. In:
Proceedings, Montana Tall Timbers fire ecology conference and
Intermountain Fire Research Council fire & land management symposium;
1974 October 8-10; Missoula, MT. No. 14. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers
Research STation: 501-538. [13529]
162. Warners, David P. 1987. Effects of burning on sedge meadow studied
(Wisconsin). Restoration & Management Notes. 5(2): 90-91. [3821]
163. Larson, Milo; Moir, W. H. 1987. Forest and woodland habitat types (plant
associations) of northern New Mexico and northern Arizona. 2d ed.
Albuquerque, NM: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Southwestern Region. 90 p. [8947]
164. Bernard, Stephen R.; Brown, Kenneth F. 1977. Distribution of mammals,
reptiles, and amphibians by BLM physiographic regions and A.W. Kuchler's
associations for the eleven western states. Tech. Note 301. Denver, CO:
U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. 169 p.
[434]
165. Stickney, Peter F. 1989. Seral origin of species originating in northern
Rocky Mountain forests. Unpublished draft on file at: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Fire
Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT; RWU 4403 files. 7 p. [20090]
166. Dansereau, Pierre. 1959. The principal plant associations of the Saint
Lawrence Valley. No. 75. Montreal, Canada: Contrib. Inst. Bot. Univ.
Montreal. 147 p. [8925]
Index
Related categories for Species: Cornus sericea
| Red-Osier Dogwood
|
 |
