Introductory
SPECIES: Juniperus virginiana | Eastern Redcedar 



ABBREVIATION : 
JUNVIR

SYNONYMS : 
   Sabina virginiana (L.) Antoine


SCS PLANT CODE : 
   JUVI


COMMON NAMES : 
   eastern redcedar
   eastern red cedar
   red juniper
   red cedar
   Baton Rouge
   pencil cedar
   Virginia juniper
   Carolina cedar
   red savin


TAXONOMY : 
The currently accepted scientific name of eastern redcedar is Juniperus
virginiana L. [47].  It is a member of the section Sabina within the
family Cupressaceae [93].  Eastern redcedar is characterized by much
genetic and phenotypic variation [88,102].  Fassett [30] observed that
"variation within any colony is often as great as within the species as
a whole."  Most taxonomists designate numerous varieties as opposed to
subspecies for the sake of maintaining greater uniformity within the
genus Juniperus [94].  Three varieties are commonly recognized [3,54]:

      Juniperus virginiana var. virginiana
      Juniperus virginiana var. crebra (Fernald)
      Juniperus virginiana var. ambigens

Numerous races, including the Platt River Race, Northern Race, Florida
Race, Ozark Race, and Typica Race, have been described [88].
 
Eastern redcedar hybridizes with many other juniper species, including
Juniperus mexicana, Rocky Mountain juniper (J. scopulorum), J.
chinensis, creeping juniper (J. horizontalis), southern redcedar (J.
silicicola), and Ashe juniper (J. ashei) [4,13,28,56,88].  Hybridization
with creeping juniper and the occurrence of hybrid swarms is common
along the coast of Maine and in the Driftless Area of Iowa and Wisconsin
[30].  The variety ambigens may be a hybrid of eastern redcedar and
creeping juniper [3,32].  Hybridization with Rocky Mountain juniper is
widespread across the Great Plains, and intermediate populations and
hybrid swarms abound [18,31,54].

Southern redcedar is poorly differentiated from eastern redcedar.  Some
authorities consider it a variety of eastern redcedar [25,39], but most
consider it a discrete species [54,88].  Rocky Mountain juniper was
formerly considered a subspecies of eastern redcedar, but it too is now
recognized as a separate species [4].  The taxonomy of Caribbean
junipers has been poorly studied, but many appear to be closely related
to eastern redcedar [3].


LIFE FORM : 
Tree, Shrub

FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS : 
No special status

OTHER STATUS : 
NO-ENTRY


COMPILED BY AND DATE : 
D. Tirmenstein, May, 1991.


LAST REVISED BY AND DATE : 
NO-ENTRY


AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION : 
Tirmenstein, D. A. 1991. Juniperus virginiana. In: Remainder of Citation

DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
SPECIES: Juniperus virginiana | Eastern Redcedar 



GENERAL DISTRIBUTION : 
Eastern redcedar is the most widely distributed conifer of the East and
grows in all states east of the Great Plains [11,61].  Its range extends
from southwestern Maine to southern Minnesota and the Dakotas, southward
to western Nebraska and central Texas, and eastward to northern Florida
and Georgia [56].  Eastern redcedar has expanded into the Great Plains
through the regeneration of planted trees [54].  Its range was much more
extensive during pre-Pleistocene and pre-Pliocene times [4].  Relict
stands in refugia from earlier climatic regimes persist in parts of
western Kansas and the Texas Panhandle [4].  Eastern redcedar is
cultivated in Hawaii [104].

Var. crebra replaces var. virginiana from portions of New England,
eastern and central New York and New Jersey southward to western
Virginia, and westward to southern Indiana, Tennessee, southern Missouri
and southeastern Wisconsin [32].  Var. ambigens grows in parts of the
Northeast [32].


ECOSYSTEMS : 
   FRES12  Longleaf - slash pine
   FRES13  Loblolly - shortleaf pine
   FRES14  Oak - pine
   FRES15  Oak - hickory
   FRES18  Maple - beech - birch
   FRES19  Aspen - birch
   FRES30  Desert shrub
   FRES38  Plains grasslands
   FRES39  Prairie


STATES : 
     AL  AR  CO  CT  DE  FL  GA  HI  IL  IN
     IA  KS  KY  LA  ME  MD  MA  MI  MN  MS
     MO  NE  NH  NJ  NY  NC  ND  OH  OK  RI
     SC  SD  TN  TX  VA  WV  WI  ON  PQ


ADMINISTRATIVE UNITS : 
     ACAD  ANTI  ASIS  BADL  BISO  BITH
     BLRI  BUFF  CACO  CAHA  CALO  CAMO
     CHCH  COLO  COSW  CUGA  CUVA  DEWA
     EFMO  FIIS  FOCA  FODO  GATE  GWCA
     GWMP  GRSM  HOBE  HOSP  INDU  MACA
     MANA  MORR  NATR  NERI  OBRI  OZAR
     PIPE  PRWI  RICH  SARA  SCBL  SHEN
     SHIL  VAFO  WICR


BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS : 
   14  Great Plains
   16  Upper Missouri and Broken Lands


KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS : 
   K074  Bluestem prairie
   K075  Nebraska Sandhills prairie
   K076  Blackland prairie
   K082  Mosaic of K074 and K100
   K083  Cedar glades
   K084  Cross Timbers
   K085  Mesquite - buffalograss
   K089  Black Belt
   K100  Oak - hickory forest
   K112  Southern mixed forest


SAF COVER TYPES : 
    19  Gray birch - red maple
    21  Eastern white pine
    37  Northern white cedar
    40  Post oak - blackjack oak
    42  Bur oak
    44  Chestnut oak
    46  Eastern redcedar
    64  Sassafras - persimmon
    68  Mesquite
    75  Shortleaf pine
    79  Virginia pine
    80  Loblolly pine - shortleaf pine
    81  Loblolly pine      
   109  Hawthorn
   110  Black oak


SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES : 
NO-ENTRY


HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES : 
Eastern redcedar grows as a climax overstory dominant on certain harsh,
rocky sites.  It also occurs as a dominant in seral communities on a
variety of disturbed sites [24].

VALUE AND USE
SPECIES: Juniperus virginiana | Eastern Redcedar 



WOOD PRODUCTS VALUE : 
The wood of eastern redcedar is attractive, durable, fine textured, and
easily worked [54,88].  It is commonly used to make fenceposts, poles,
and interior paneling [46,61].  The fragrant, richly colored,
purplish-red wood is well suited for furniture, woodenware, pencils,
shavings, and various novelty products [17,61,88].  The wood is
purported to repel moths and is used to make cedar chests and closet or
cupboard liners [88].

Eastern redcedar is not generally considered an important commercial
timber species [54].  However, markets have been expanding in recent
years, and some logs are now exported to Japan and Korea [43].  Eastern
redcedar makes good kindling but has only fair value as firewood [16].
It is occasionally used as fuel or made into charcoal [46].


IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE : 
Eastern redcedar provides important food and cover for many wildlife
species.  Overall value to songbirds is described as good, whereas food
and cover value for upland game birds and game mammals is fair [16].

Browse:  Eastern redcedar is browsed by deer to some extent but is not a
preferred food.  The foliage can be an important emergency food source
for deer during times of stress.  Use may be heavy during extreme food
shortages [54].  In a Connecticut nursery, deer browsed approximately
21.7 percent of all eastern redcedars [20].  Mice and rabbits
occasionally feed on seedlings [54].  Cattle do not browse eastern
redcedar [88].

Fruit:  Many species of birds and mammals feed on the highly palatable
berrylike cones while they are still on the trees and after the fruit
has fallen to the ground [11].  Large numbers of frugivorous birds
congregate in eastern redcedar thickets during the winter [81].  Cedar
glades serve as excellent winter habitat for the American robin [91].
In many areas, this fruit is most valuable during the fall and winter.
However, some birds, such as the American robin, continue to feed on the
fruit until as late as June 21 [70].

The following is a partial list of birds and mammals that eat the fruit
of eastern redcedar:  cedar waxwing, northern bobwhite, ring-necked
pheasant, ruffed grouse, sharp-tailed grouse, wild turkey, American
robin, starling, mourning dove, northern mockingbird, willow flycatcher,
purple finch, common crow, northern flicker, myrtle warbler, downy
woodpecker, evening grosbeak, pine grosbeak, hermit thrush, fox sparrow,
yellow-bellied sapsucker, eastern bluebird, kingbird, rabbits, foxes,
skunks, opossum, and coyote [6,11,54,59,70,87].


PALATABILITY : 
Eastern redcedar browse is evidently somewhat palatable to deer in
certain locations but is generally not preferred.  Conifers such as
eastern redcedar contain terpenes, resins, and volatile oils which
decrease palatability to browsers [8].  Palatability may vary with the
individual tree [72].


NUTRITIONAL VALUE : 
Browse:  Ovulate individuals reportedly have higher concentrations of
potassium and calcium than do staminate individuals [88].

Fruit:  The fruit of eastern redcedar is relatively high in crude fat,
moderate in calcium, and very high in total carbohydrates [54].  Fruit
contains an estimated 106.75 J of energy per fruit and 229.74 J seed
energy per fruit [81].  Nutrient content is as follows [70,81]:

      protein                 4 to 6 percent
      sugar                   10 to 30 percent
      starch and cellulose    12 to 20 percent
      water per fruit         .0140 g


COVER VALUE : 
Eastern redcedar provides good cover for a wide variety of birds and
mammals [37,54].  It offers good nesting sites and year-round roosts for
many species of birds [54].  The American robin, chipping sparrow, song
sparrow, and northern mockingbird nest in eastern redcedar [59].  In
Kentucky and presumably elsewhere, eastern redcedars are preferred
roosting sites for the eastern screech owl [9].  The myrtle warbler,
slate-colored junco, and many species of sparrows also roost in the
dense foliage [59].  In many parts of the Great Plains, the dense cover
of eastern redcedar windbreaks is particularly important for the
ring-necked pheasant [79].  Thickets offer good escape cover for deer
[54].


VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES : 
Eastern redcedar is well suited to a variety of rehabilitation projects.
Its fibrous root system can help prevent soil erosion, and it is capable
of growing on many harsh droughty sites [54].  It is of particular value
in protecting fragile, exposed watersheds [91].  Eastern redcedar has
been successfully planted onto strip-mine spoils in Kansas, Missouri,
Oklahoma, Ohio, and elsewhere [17,55,89].  Particularly good growth and
survival (85 percent) have been reported on calcareous coal mine spoils
[55].  Naturally established eastern redcedar grows as a codominant on
certain abandoned lead pit mines of southwestern Wisconsin, suggesting
that the species has potential for reclamation of mine wastes with high
soil levels of lead and zinc [12].  Eastern redcedar has been
successfully transplanted onto borrow pits [19]; plants which developed
from natural seed sources dominated a 47-year-old gravel pit [63].

Eastern redcedar can be readily propagated from seed.  Cleaned seed
averages approximately 43,600 per pound (96,120/kg) [46] and can be sown
directly by hand or machine [54].  Stratified seed can be sown in
spring, or untreated seed can be sown in the fall and then mulched [54].
Redcedar reportedly transplants readily [37] and can also be propagated
by grafting, layering, and from cuttings [54].


OTHER USES AND VALUES : 
Eastern redcedar is a valuable ornamental [22] and has been cultivated
since 1664 [46].  It is widely used in landscaping [88] and makes
particularly attractive hedges and screens [67].  Many cultivars are now
available, including green-leaved, glaucous-leaved, and
variegated-leaved trees, and many types of shrubs [88].  Heat- and
drought-tolerant cultivars such as 'Skyrocket' have also been developed
[47].  Although eastern redcedar is well suited to urban plantings, it
can become weedy and spread to adjacent agricultural land in some parts
of Virginia and the East [42].

Eastern redcedar is preferred for shelterbelt or windbreak plantings in
many parts of the Great Plains [54,79].  It provides protection from
wind and serves as a living snow fence [79].  In some areas,
particularly in the South, eastern redcedar is used for Christmas trees
[54,88].

The fruits and foliage of many junipers contain aromatic oils which are
used in medicine and in the manufacture of alcohol [46].  Eastern
redcedar is a source of "cedarwood oil" which is used in a variety of
fragrance compounds [54].  These compounds are used in making soaps,
inhalants, liniments, insecticides, polishes, perfumes, and cosmetics
[7,88].


MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS : 
Forage production:  In many areas, eastern redcedar has been encroaching
into rangeland and lowering forage production [95].  In Oklahoma, this
encroachment is described as an "acute problem" affecting at least 3.7
million acres (1.5 million ha) of rangeland [27].  Consequently,
management efforts in many parts of eastern redcedar's range,
particularly at the eastern margin of the Great Plains, have focused on
developing ways of eliminating or reducing this woody invader.
Elsewhere, researchers are focusing on means of developing this species
for its wood product value.

Silviculture:  On some harsh sites with shallow soil, eastern redcedar
may be the only valuable timber tree present and is favored in timber
management [88].  This species grows slowly and requires long rotations
to produce sawlogs [54].  Approximately 40 to 60 years are required for
sawtimber, and 20 to 30 years for posts.  However, many uses of eastern
redcedar do not require large logs and it may be possible to shorten
rotations or conduct intermediate harvesting [54].

Shelterbelt plantings:  Eastern redcedar is tolerant of temperature
extremes and harsh conditions and is well suited for use in shelterbelt
plantings [54].  In many portions of the Great Plains, shelterbelts are
now declining [98], but decadent stands can be rejuvenated by
underplanting eastern redcedar [33].

Grazing:  Eastern redcedar commonly invades grazed hill prairie [64].
Although livestock may trample plants and damage roots [54], eastern
redcedar generally increases in response to overgrazing [88].
Overgrazing aids the spread of eastern redcedar by reducing fuels and
thus contributing to reduced fire intensity [41].  In some areas, unique
remnant hill prairies are threatened by increases in eastern redcedar
[11].

Chemical control:  Eastern redcedar is resistant to herbicides
[83,85,102].  Herbicides such as picloram have been used but are
relatively ineffective on trees over 15 feet (4.5 m) tall or where
excessive litter interferes with absorption [95].  Response to various
chemicals has been examined in detail [27,83,85,95,102].

Mechanical treatment:  Mechanical treatments can be used to reduce
eastern redcedar.  However, these methods are generally uneconomical and
unsuited for areas with thin, fragile soil or rough terrain [95].

Damage:  Eastern redcedar is tolerant of drought, although
drought-caused mortality can occur [2,54].  It is moderately resistant
to ice damage [54] but can be killed by excessive soil moisture [15].

Insects and disease:  Eastern redcedar is susceptible to several
diseases and insect infestations [54,76].  It serves as an alternate
host for cedar-apple rust which can create problems for apple growers
[54].  Susceptibility to various diseases varies according to individual
genetic make-up [88].

Environmental considerations:  Eastern redcedar is resistant to air
pollution and can survive on sites which are too harsh for many other
conifers [88].

BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
SPECIES: Juniperus virginiana | Eastern Redcedar 



GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS : 
Eastern redcedar is a variable, small to medium-sized tree or shrub
which ranges from 20 to 100 feet (6.1-30 m) in height at maturity
[6,39,46,101].  Plants tend to be much smaller on drier sites and seldom
attain heights of more than 20 or 30 feet (6.1-9 m) on shallow soils
[6,61].  Eastern redcedar has a dense crown [76] and assumes a narrowly
pyramidal or columnar shape [44].  Old individuals are often
characterized by an open, irregular crown [44].  Maximum longevity has
been estimated at 300 years [57].  The reddish-brown branches are
slender and ascending [40,44].  The thin, fibrous, reddish-brown to
grayish bark exfoliates in narrow strips [25,40].  Roots are fibrous
[54] and may reach depths of 5 to 10 feet (1.5-3 m) [5].

Leaves on young growth are sharp and awl shaped, and generally occur in
whorls of three [30,90].  Mature foliage is scalelike and opposite or
overlapping [30,90].  The yellowish-green to bluish-green leaves are
extremely variable [40,71].

Eastern redcedar is dioecious or, more rarely, monocecious [88].
Yellowish-brown staminate cones occur in abundance at the tips of small
twigs [40,71].  The berrylike pistillate cones are borne on axillary
branches of new scale leaves [39,40,54].  Pistillate cones are glaucous,
dark blue or bluish-purple, and 0.2 to 0.3 inch (4-7 mm) in diameter
[40].  Each cone contains one to four rounded or angled, smooth, brown
to yellowish-brown seeds [40,54].

Important distinctions between recognized varieties are summarized below
[13,32]:

     var. virginiana - seeds deeply pitted, broad pyramidal form
     var. crebra - seeds shallowly pitted, columnar form
     var. ambigens - matted shrub with creeping or somewhat ascending stems


RAUNKIAER LIFE FORM : 
   Phanerophyte


REGENERATION PROCESSES : 
Eastern redcedar regenerates through seed [11].  Mature plants produce
some seed annually, and large seed crops are produced every 2 to 3 years
[46,54].  Average age of first reproduction has been estimated at 25
years, although some individuals produce seed as early as 10 years of
age [57].

Seed dispersal:  Seed is dispersed by gravity and by a wide variety of
birds and mammals [46].  Many junipers rely on avian winter frugivores
for seed dispersal [81].  Birds may be effective in promoting some
long-distance dispersal, but most bird-dispersed seed is dropped less
than 66 feet (20 m) from the parent tree [60].  Herds of cattle can
disperse seed into adjacent grasslands [91] and can aid in "planting"
juniper seeds, as trampling disturbs the top layers of soil.

Germination:  Juniper seeds have a thick impermeable seed coat, and
exhibit both seed coat and chemical dormancy [77].  Germination is
generally enhanced by warm moist stratification (75 degrees Fahrenheit
[23 deg C] for 6 weeks) followed by cold moist stratification (41
degrees Fahrenheit [5 deg C] for 10 weeks) [77].

Properly stored seed can remain viable for long periods of time [46,67].
Stratified seed generally begins germinating 6 to 10 days after
planting, and germination continues for 4 to 5 weeks.  Under natural
conditions, seeds may germinate during the first or second spring.
However, most seed germinates during the early spring of the 2nd year
after dispersal [54].

Seedling establishment:  Seedlings often establish along fence rows as a
result of bird dispersal.  On dry sites, seedlings establish in rock
crevices or in other moist protected microsites [54].  Eastern redcedar
seedlings are tolerant of drought [11] but exhibit slow initial growth.
Severe competition greatly increases early seedling mortality [54].


SITE CHARACTERISTICS : 
Eastern redcedar grows on exposed rock outcrops, bluffs, cliffs, stable
dunes, in thin-soiled glades or barrens, and in dry woodlands
[54,62,90,93,100].  It commonly invades abandoned fields, pastures,
prairie hillsides, and disturbed forests [35,40].  Eastern redcedar also
grows on relatively moist sites such as along lakeshores and
streambanks, in swamps, river bottoms, and alluvial woods, on natural
levees, shell mounds, and on moist to wet hammocks [39,54,82,90].  It
grows on ridgetops, slopes, and flatlands [54] but is most common on
west- or north-facing slopes or in protected cooler stream bottoms at
the drier western edge of its range [88].

Plant communities:  Eastern redcedar commonly forms pure stands on
abandoned agricultural lands, drier uplands, and in thin-soiled "glades"
[54,88].  It is a constituent of various pine-hardwood, mixed hardwood,
post oak (Quercus stellata) savanna, prairie, and plains grassland
communities [96,97].

Plant associates:  Trees - In the South, eastern redcedar commonly grows
with shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata), Virginia pine (P. virginiana), and
numerous hardwoods [54].  In Southern cedar glades, winged elm (Ulmus
alata), blackjack oak (Quercus marilandica), Carolina buckthorn (Rhamnus
caroliniana), and rusty blackhaw (Viburnum rufidulum) commonly occur
with eastern redcedar [41,54].  Eastern redcedar is associated with
northern red oak (Quercus rubra), white oak (Q. alba), hickories (Carya
spp.), black walnut (Juglans nigrum), and many other hardwoods in the
central and eastern portions of its range [54].  Gray birch (Betula
populifolia), red maple (Acer rubrum), and aspen (Populus tremuloides)
are common associates in the Northeast, while cottonwoods (Populus
spp.), willows (Salix spp.), blackjack oak, post oak, and chokecherry
(Prunus virginiana) frequently grow with eastern redcedar in the Great
Plains [23,49].  Understory - Numerous herb and shrubby species grow
with this widespread species in the East and Northeast [88].  Fragrant
sumac (Rhus aromatica), Alabama supplejack (Berchemia scandens), little
bluestem (Shcizachryium scoparium), big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii
var. gerardii), dropseed (Sporobolus spp.), and switchgrass (Panicum
spp.) are common understory associates in cedar glades of the South
[41,53].  Black-seed ricegrass (Oryzopsis micrantha), poison-ivy
(Toxocodendron rydbergii), and American pasqueflower (Anemone patens)
often occur with eastern redcedar in parts of the Great Plains [23,40].

Soils:  Eastern redcedar grows on a wide range of soils but generally
exhibits best development on deep, well-drained alluvial soils derived
from limestone [6,44,61].  It is also capable of growing on poor, rocky
sites with shallow soils [44].  Competition often limits its growth on
better sites [54].  Eastern redcedar occurs on sandy, silty, or clayey
loam, loamy sand, or heavy clay [40,76,83,88].  Soils are often high in
calcium, with limited soil moisture and nutrients [14].  Soils may be
saturated in the spring but droughty by fall [90].  Parent materials
include limestone, dolomite, quartzite, shale, granite, sandstone, and
gypsum [34,66,83,88,91].  Soil pH ranges from 4.7 to 7.8 [54], but
eastern redcedar most commonly occurs on neutral or slightly alkaline
soils.  It is fairly intolerant of strongly alkaline soils [54]; growth
may be slow on acidic soils [17].

Climate:  Eastern redcedar is adapted to a wide climatic range [88] but
commonly grows under a dry continental climatic regime [49].  Average
annual precipitation ranges from 15 inches (38 cm) in the Great Plains
to more than 60 inches (152.4 cm) in the Southeast [54,88].  Summer
precipitation may be more limiting than average annual precipitation
[54].  Summer temperatures are often high, and winter temperatures quite
low [99].  Temperatures may drop to -40 degrees Fahrenheit (-40 deg C)
in Minnesota and the central Great Plains and climb to 115 degrees
Fahrenheit (46 deg C) in the central and southern Great Plains [88].
The growing season ranges from 120 days in the Dakotas to 250 days in
the southern Coastal Plain [88].

Elevation:  Eastern redcedar generally occurs between 100 feet (30 m)
and 3,500 feet (1,070 m) in elevation [54].  In the southern and eastern
portions of its range, eastern redcedar is restricted to elevations
above 100 feet (30 m).  In western Nebraska and Kansas, it grows from
sea level to more than 5,000 feet (1-1,524 m) in elevation [88].


SUCCESSIONAL STATUS : 
Eastern redcedar is a pioneer on many types of disturbed, unburned sites
[91,103] and persists in certain dry, harsh climax stands [14].  On
well-drained bottomland sites, eastern redcedar is an initial colonizer
but is soon replaced by species such as common persimmon (Diospyros
virginiana) and sassafras (Sassafras albidum) [88].  In the upper
Mississippi Valley, more shade-tolerant species such as northern red oak
may enter the canopy as eastern redcedar is eliminated [11].  Eastern
redcedar is typically a successional species on rolling upland sites
[14].  However, succession to hardwoods may proceed very slowly on drier
sites [88].  In many areas, stands begin to deteriorate at age 60 as
competing hardwoods begin to shade out eastern redcedar [54].  Scattered
individuals or small groups of eastern redcedar may survive in a
suppressed state beneath hardwoods for a fairly long period [88].
Suppressed redcedars may resume growth as decadent hardwoods fall, and
the canopy opens [91].

Eastern redcedar forms long-lived, stable communities in the Interior
Low Plateau, Limestone Valley, and Upland Soils Provinces at the central
portion of its range.  These communities have alternately been described
as climax or subclimax [14].  It also forms stable communities on
thin-soiled, rocky glades in the Ozarks [54,61] and along the
Mississippi River from Missouri to Minnesota [14].

Old-field communities:  Eastern redcedar is a woody invader on abandoned
agricultural lands and in certain rolling hill prairies in which fire
suppression has brought about vegetative changes [11,88].  It is
characteristic of successional stages in many old-field communities [65]
and is often one of the first trees to invade these communities [6].
Eastern redcedar is particularly common on abandoned fields that are not
burned or grazed [99].  In central New Jersey, seedlings were observed
by the 3rd year after abandonment, and establishment continued through
the 12th year [60].  Elsewhere it may be associated with later or
"advanced stages" in old-field succession [80].  No seedlings were
observed during the first 8 years after abandonment in New Jersey
old-field communities, and seedlings were first noted in year 14 [73].
In old-field communities of Massachusetts and Connecticut, eastern
redcedar and gray birch initially dominate early successional stages but
are eventually replaced by white oak, black oak, northern red oak, red
maple, black birch, and hickory [75].  White ash (Fraxinus americana)
may replace eastern redcedar in old-field communities in parts of New
York [75].


SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT : 
Cambial growth occurs from May to July [41].  Pollen forms in staminate
conelets by late September; staminate cones mature during winter [54].
Ovulate cones develop by late summer or early fall but grow little over
the winter and do not become conspicuous until late February or early
spring.  Pollination occurs from mid-February to March, depending on
location, and is completed within just a few days [54].  Maturation of
cones takes an average of 162.3 days [81]; cones generally mature from
late July to November [54].  In the central part of its range, cones
generally mature by September [88].  Fruit ripening is generally 1 month
later in New England than in Texas [88].  Seasonal variation of up to 2
weeks has been observed in Massassachusetts [88].

Phenological development by geographic location is as follows:

(1)  Northeast:  plants flower from mid-March to mid-May; fruit ripens
        from September to November; and seed dispersal occurs from
        February to March [46].
(2)  New England:  fruit ripens in late July [78].
(3)  southeastern U.S.:  plants flower from January to April [25].
(4)  Blue Ridge:  plants flower from January to March [93].
(5)  North and South Carolina:  plants flower January to March; fruit
        ripens from October to November [71].
(6)  Kansas:  seed dispersal occurs from September 6 to March 27 [81].
(7)  northern Great Plains: plants flower in April; fruit ripens in
        September [82].
(8)  Great Plains:  plants flower from April to May [40.

FIRE ECOLOGY
SPECIES: Juniperus virginiana | Eastern Redcedar 



FIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS : 
Eastern redcedar was historically restricted to sites which were
protected from fire by topoedaphic factors and insufficient fuels
[27,100].  During the 1800's, eastern redcedar was largely restricted to
refugia such as clifftops, river bluffs, and bottoms [11,14].  As a
result of overgrazing and subsequent reduction in fuels, and increased
fire suppression, eastern redcedar began spreading onto rolling uplands
and prairie slopes [1,14,45].  In many areas it has been vigorously
encroaching into grasslands since the 1920's [92].

Eastern redcedar is unable to persist on frequently burned sites [6].
Fire intervals of less than 20 years would probably eliminate this
species [41].  Presettlement fire intervals have been estimated at 3.2
years in portions of the Missouri glades which now support eastern
redcedar [41].  Many of the harsh, rocky sites occupied by eastern
redcedar lack sufficient fuels to carry fire [6,91]; the moist sites
occupied by this species, such as marshes and swamps, also burn
infrequently [100].

Eastern redcedar reestablishes through seed transported by various birds
and mammals.


POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY : 
   Secondary colonizer - off-site seed

FIRE EFFECTS
SPECIES: Juniperus virginiana | Eastern Redcedar 



IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT : 
Eastern redcedar is very susceptible to fire [50,51] and is typically
killed when aboveground foliage is destroyed or damaged.  Young or small
trees are somewhat more likely to be killed than are large individuals
[41], but even large trees are not considered fire resistant [11].  The
bark of eastern redcedar is thin, seldom more than 0.2 inch (0.5 cm)
thick on mature trees, and provides little protection from heat [11].
Trees are susceptible to bole damage from heat alone [41].  Mature trees
are often killed by the heat of a single surface fire [6].

In a Kansas gallery forest, all eastern redcedar seedlings were killed
by a single fire [2].  More than 90 percent mortality was reported after
"severe" fires in the tallgrass prairie regions of Oklahoma [51] and
after a wildfire in a loblolly pine plantation in Tennessee [21].
However, only 3 percent of eastern redcedars were killed by a light fire
in the Missouri glades [41], an area often characterized by light,
discontinuous fuels.  Researchers suggest that a severe fire would have
killed most individuals, leaving only a few, very large survivors [41].


DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT : 
Eastern redcedars less than 5 feet (1.5 m) in height are particularly
susceptible to fire mortality or damage [88].  Fire scars are
occasionally observed on large trees, indicating that some individuals
may survive presumably light surface fires [41].


PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE : 
Eastern redcedar reestablishes burned sites through bird- and
mammal-dispersed seed [6].  Fires are often patchy in many harsh, rocky,
redcedar-dominated sites, and a few large individuals may survive and
provide a seed source for subsequent seedling establishment.


DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE : 
Postfire response of eastern redcedar varies according to fire severity
and intensity, and season of burn.  Density, frequency, and basal area
are typically most reduced by hot fires.  The following response was
reported after a wildfire in a loblolly pine forest in North Carolina
[66]:

                  Unburned          Surface fire            Crown fire
density (%)          2.4                 0.5                    0.1           
frequency (%)       90                  30                     10      
basal area           1.35                0.89                   0.19


FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS : 
Prescribed fire:  Prescribed fire can be an effective and relatively
inexpensive means of reducing eastern redcedar [26,51].  Fire has been
used to control this woody invader in the Ozarks, Wisconsin, the Flint
Hills of Kansas, Oklahoma, and elsewhere [11,26,88].  In parts of
Kansas, eastern redcedar can be controlled by mid to late spring burns
(April 15 to May 1) [53].  Surviving trees can be removed through
follow-up cutting.  In some instances, mortality of large trees can be
increased by treating them with herbicides prior to fire [27].

Flammability:  The foliage of eastern redcedar is highly flammable [11].
Penfound [69] reported that "redcedars exploded with flames up to 50
feet (15.2 m) high" in post oak-eastern redcedar forests in Oklahoma.

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Related categories for Species: Juniperus virginiana | Eastern Redcedar