Introductory
SPECIES: Philadelphus lewisii | Lewis' Mockorange 



ABBREVIATION : 
PHILEW

SYNONYMS : 
   Philadelphus californicus Benth. [18]


SCS PLANT CODE : 
   PHLE4
   PHLEA
   PHLEE
   PHLEG2
   PHLEH
   PHLEI
   PHLEL2
   PHLEO
   PHLEP2
   PHLEP3


COMMON NAMES : 
   Lewis' mockorange
   mockorange
   syringa
   Gordon's mockorange


TAXONOMY : 
The currently accepted scientific name for Lewis' mockorange is
Philadelphus lewisii Pursh [14,15,18].  The genus Philadelphus has
recently been treated as a member of the family Philadelphaceae [14],
although some authors [15,18] consider it in the family Hydrangeaceae.

Recognized varieties [18] and subspecies [14,32] are as follows:

Philadelphus lewisii var. angustifolius (Rydb.) Hu
Philadelphus lewisii var. ellipticus Hu
Philadelphus lewisii var. gordonianus (Lindl.) Jepson 
Philadelphus lewisii var. helleri (Rydb.) Hu
Philadelphus lewisii var. intermedius (A. Nels.) Hu 
Philadelphus lewisii var. lewisii Pursh
Philadelphus lewisii var. oblongifolius Hu
Philadelphus lewisii var. parvifolius Hu
Philadelphus lewisii var. platyphyllus (Rydb.) Hu

Philadelphus lewisii ssp. californicus (Benth.) Munz.


LIFE FORM : 
Shrub

FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS : 
No special status

OTHER STATUS : 



COMPILED BY AND DATE : 
H. Harris, December 1988


LAST REVISED BY AND DATE : 
Jennifer H. Carey, October 1995


AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION : 
Carey, Jennifer H. 1995; Harris, H. 1988. Philadelphus lewisii. In: Remainder of Citation

DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
SPECIES: Philadelphus lewisii | Lewis' Mockorange 



GENERAL DISTRIBUTION : 
Lewis' mockorange occurs in the northwestern United States and southern
Canada.  It occurs from extreme southern British Columbia south to
California, and east to north and central Idaho, western Montana, and
southwestern Alberta [14,15,34].  Philadelphus lewisii ssp. californicus
occurs from the southern Cascade Range of southwestern Oregon south
through the Sierra Nevada to Tulare County, California [14,32], and P.
l. var. gordonianus occurs in the Coast Ranges and the Cascade Range
from British Columbia south to northern California [43].


ECOSYSTEMS : 
   FRES20  Douglas-fir
   FRES21  Ponderosa pine
   FRES22  Western white pine
   FRES23  Fir-spruce
   FRES25  Larch
   FRES28  Western hardwoods
   FRES29  Sagebrush
   FRES34  Chaparral-mountain shrub
   FRES36  Mountain grasslands


STATES : 
     CA  ID  MT  OR  WA  AB  BC


ADMINISTRATIVE UNITS : 
     CODA  CRLA  CRMO  GLAC  JODA  MORA
     NEPE  NOCA  OLYM  ORCA  REDW  SAJH
     SEKI  WHSH  YOSE


BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS : 
    1  Northern Pacific Border
    2  Cascade Mountains
    4  Sierra Mountains
    5  Columbia Plateau
    8  Northern Rocky Mountains


KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS : 
   K010  Ponderosa shrub forest
   K011  Western ponderosa forest
   K012  Douglas-fir forest
   K013  Cedar-hemlock-pine forest
   K014  Grand fir-Douglas-fir forest
   K025  Alder-ash forest
   K026  Oregon oakwoods
   K028  Mosaic of K002 and K026
   K034  Montane chaparral
   K051  Wheatgrass-bluegrass
   K055  Sagebrush steppe


SAF COVER TYPES : 
   210  Interior Douglas-fir
   212  Western larch
   213  Grand fir
   219  Limber pine
   221  Red alder
   222  Black cottonwood-willow
   227  Western redcedar-western hemlock
   229  Pacific Douglas-fir
   230  Douglas-fir-western hemlock
   233  Oregon white oak
   234  Douglas-fir-tanoak-Pacific madrone
   237  Interior ponderosa pine
   244  Pacific ponderosa pine-Douglas-fir
   245  Pacific ponderosa pine


SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES : 
   109  Ponderosa pine shrubland
   203  Riparian woodland
   209  Montane shrubland
   421  Chokecherry-serviceberry-rose
   422  Riparian


HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES : 
Lewis' mockorange commonly occurs in open coniferous forests and at
forest edges [34], and is usually associated with other shrubs.  In dry
Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) forests on the western slope of the
Cascade Range in Oregon, Lewis' mockorange is positively (significant at
P<0.05) associated with beaked hazelnut (Corylus cornuta), oceanspray
(Holodiscus discolor), poison-oak (Toxicodendron diversilobum), baldhip
rose (Rosa gymnocarpa), and hollyleaved barberry (Mahonia aquifolium).
It reaches its greatest importance in the Douglas-fir/hollyleaved
barberry/disporum (Disporum spp.) community type [26].  Lewis'
mockorange is positively (significant at P<0.05) associated with
ninebark (Physocarpus malvaceus) on talus slopes in western Montana [25].

Lewis' mockorange occurs in moist draws and riparian areas, especially
in drier regions of the Northwest.  In eastern Oregon, Lewis' mockorange
is associated with willows (Salix spp.), alders (Alnus spp.), and
hawthorns (Crataegus spp.) [13].  It occurs with red-osier dogwood
(Cornus sericea) and Saskatoon serviceberry (Amelanchier alnifolia) in
north-central Washington [6].  It occurs with Saskatoon serviceberry and
common chokecherry (Prunus virginiana) on rocky outcrops of the National
Bison Range in western Montana [29].  In Oregon white oak (Quercus
garryana) woodlands in northern California, Lewis' mockorange occurs
along stream channels with oceanspray, cluster rose (R. pisocarpa), pale
serviceberry (A. pallida), and Indian plum (Oemleria cerasiformis).  A
Lewis' mockorange/brittle bladderfern (Cystopteris fragilis) community
type has been described [41].

Lewis' mockorange occurs in seral shrubfields and chaparral communities.
In northern Idaho, Lewis' mockorange is a component of the tall shrub
union that follows logging and burning [48].  In southwestern Oregon,
Philadelphus lewisii ssp. californicus occurs in chaparral dominated by
wedgeleaf ceanothus (Ceanothus cuneatus).  Other shrubs present include
skunkbush sumac (Rhus trilobata), yerba santa (Eriodictylon
californicum), chaparral honeysuckle (Lonicera interrupta), Klamath plum
(P. subcordata), hollyleaf redberry (Rhamnus crocea ssp. ilicifolia),
and pale serviceberry [7].

VALUE AND USE
SPECIES: Philadelphus lewisii | Lewis' Mockorange 



WOOD PRODUCTS VALUE : 
NO-ENTRY


IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE : 
Lewis' mockorange is of minor importance as a forage species for
livestock [43].  Sampson [36] considered it poor to useless browse for
cattle and horses.  However, Shaw [37] reports that in riparian areas in
eastern Oregon, Lewis' mockorange is heavily browsed in areas accessible
to cattle.

Lewis' mockorange is a moderately important winter forage species for
deer and elk in the northern Rocky Mountains.  In southern British
Columbia, Lewis' mockorange is of moderate importance as a winter forage
species for white-tailed deer and Rocky Mountain elk, and of low
importance to other wild ungulates [4].  In Montana, a 1957 study based
on rumen samples showed that Lewis' mockorange constituted 2 percent of
mule deer diets in the winter and a trace in the summer [47].  In
northern Idaho, use by white-tailed deer was moderate, although a few
individual plants were browsed heavily [42].  Lewis' mockorange seeds
are eaten by quail and squirrels [46].


PALATABILITY : 
Although generally considered of low palatability, Lewis' mockorange is
browsed heavily at times [21,37,42,43].  New sprouts of Lewis'
mockorange are very palatable [1,21,36].  See FIRE MANAGEMENT for
discussion of Lewis' mockorange palatability following fire.


NUTRITIONAL VALUE : 
NO-ENTRY


COVER VALUE : 
Lewis' mockorange occurs in dense shrub habitats which probably provide
good cover for wildlife.  In north-central Washington, Lewis' mockorange
occurs in a riparian cover type which is preferred in both summer and
winter by mule deer for thermal and security cover [6].


VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES : 
NO-ENTRY


OTHER USES AND VALUES : 
Native Americans used the strong, hard branches of Lewis' mockorange for
bows, arrows, combs, tobacco pipes, cradles, and netting shuttles
[17,34].  Lewis' mockorange is cultivated as an ornamental, but
Philadelphus coronarius, a European species, is the most commonly grown
mockorange in the Northwest [39].  Lewis' mockorange is the Idaho state
flower [17]; it is illegal to collect Lewis' mockorange in Idaho for
export or sale [30].


MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS : 
Lewis' mockorange is very sensitive to herbicide sprays [2,31].  Effects
of herbicides on Lewis' mockorange are described [27].

BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
SPECIES: Philadelphus lewisii | Lewis' Mockorange 



GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS : 
Lewis' mockorange is a native, deciduous, erect to spreading shrub that
grows 3 to 10 feet (1-3 m) tall.  The showy flowers occur in clusters of
three to fifteen.  The fruit is a four-chambered capsule about 0.24 to
0.39 inch (0.6-1 cm) long [34].  Seeds are about 0.08 inch (0.2 cm)
long.  Lewis' mockorange is extremely variable in both vegetative and
floral characteristics [39].


RAUNKIAER LIFE FORM : 
   Phanerophyte


REGENERATION PROCESSES : 
Lewis' mockorange reproduces vegetatively and by seed.  

Seeds accumulate in the seedbank.  Sparsely distributed viable seeds
were collected from the top 2 inches (5 cm) of soil in forested sites in
central Idaho [19]

Stratification of Lewis' mockorange increases germination.  Seeds
stratified for 8 weeks at 41 degrees Fahrenheit (5 deg C) then placed in
a sand medium at 72 to 79 degrees Fahrenheit (22-26 deg C) had 64
percent germination.  The germination rate was less than 10 percent for
seeds stratified less than 8 weeks [39].  Germination was 52 percent
when stored at room temperature for 3 years and 39 percent when stored
at 40 degrees Fahrenheit (4 deg C) [28].  Germination was low when seeds
were fully exposed to light or kept in complete darkness [39].

Fruit development was adversely affected by drought in northern Idaho.
Fruit partially developed, turned brown, and opened, but no viable seed
was produced [8].

Lewis' mockorange sprouts from the root crown [10].


SITE CHARACTERISTICS : 
Lewis' mockorange occurs on well-drained, moist sites [46].  It grows on
deep, rich alluvial loams to rocky or gravelly loams [43].  Lewis'
mockorange is commonly found on rocky sites, at the base of talus slopes
and cliffs, along streams, and in seasonally moist draws [6,15].  It
is found at talus margins in the Columbia River Basin [11].  It occurs
at seeps, springs, and rocky wet areas in the Crooked River National
Grasslands in central Oregon [16].

Lewis' mockorange occurs from sea level up to 7,000 feet (2,100 m) in
the Cascade Range [15,43]. Philadelphus lewisii ssp.  californicus grows
from 1,000 to 5,000 feet (300-1,500 m) elevation on rocky slopes and in
canyons in the Sierra Nevada [36].  Lewis' mockorange grows best on
northern and eastern exposures [43].


SUCCESSIONAL STATUS : 
Lewis' mockorange is tolerant of moderate shade [43].  It is an early to
mid-seral species [38] and is often present in seral shrub communities
following logging and burning [48].  Although normally scattered at low
densities [43], it sometimes occurs in dense, localized stands [17].


SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT : 
Flowering of Lewis' mockorange occurs from May through July.  Fruit
matures in late summer and seeds are dispersed in September or October
[39].  The following dates are general ranges drawn from several studies
in northern Idaho.  Specific times for several years are reported [8,33].

Development                     Date of Occurrence

bud burst			early April
leaf out			late April to early May
leaf growth			late April to mid-May
stem elongation		        early May to late May
flower bloom		        late June to July
fruit development		begins in July
leaf fall			late September to late November

FIRE ECOLOGY
SPECIES: Philadelphus lewisii | Lewis' Mockorange 



FIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS : 
Lewis' mockorange occurs in both forested environments which frequently
experience fire and on rocky scree slopes which may not burn at all.  In
western Montana, Lewis' mockorange occurs in Douglas-fir habitat types
which had historical fire frequencies of 5 to 45 years [10].  The
ability of Lewis' mockorange to sprout after top-kill by fire enables it
to persist in these forests.


POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY : 
   Tall shrub, adventitious-bud root crown
   Ground residual colonizer (on-site, initial community)

FIRE EFFECTS
SPECIES: Philadelphus lewisii | Lewis' Mockorange 



IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT : 
Lewis' mockorange is top-killed by fire, but the root crown usually
survives and produces sprouts [10,23,24].


DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT : 
NO-ENTRY


PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE : 
Lewis' mockorange sprouts vigorously from the root crown following fire
[10,23,24].  After an April fire on a south-facing slope in
north-central Idaho, Lewis' mockorange increased to prefire densities by
the third postfire growing season [22].

The following two studies have investigated the sprouting response of
Lewis' mockorange to fire.

Seral brushfields within the grand fir (Abies grandis)/pachistima
(Pachistima myrsinites) habitat type in northern Idaho were burned in
either spring (late March - early April) or fall (October).
Temperatures during the fires ranged from 67 to 78 degrees Fahrenheit
(19-26 deg C), and relative humidities ranged from 25 to 48 percent.
Lewis' mockorange on sites burned in October did not sprout until the
following April.  Lewis' mockorange on the spring-burned sites sprouted
4 to 8 weeks after the fire.  Twenty completely top-killed Lewis'
mockorange (eleven on the fall burned sites and nine on the spring
burned sites) were measured at the end of the first postfire growing
season [24]:

                                       Fall Fires       Spring Fires

Average crown diameter (ft)     
   prefire                             4.7 (143 cm)     4.7 (143 cm)
   postfire                            2.4 (73 cm)      2.2 (67 cm)

Average crown height (ft)
   prefire                             8.8 (268 cm)     9.6 (293 cm)
   postfire                            4.1 (125 cm)     3.7 (113 cm)

No. basal sprouts per plant
   prefire                             1.5              0.6
   postfire                           38.0             28.9

Average postfire sprout height (ft)    2.4 (73 cm)      2.1 (64 cm)

A multiple regression equation is presented which relates the number of
postfire basal sprouts to prefire crown height, crown diameter, and
crown volume [24].

In another study in north-central Idaho, a brushfield was burned three
times at 5-year intervals (31 March 1965, 3 May 1970, and 14 May 1975).
Maximum air temperatures during the fires were 77, 81, and 88 degrees
Fahrenheit (25, 27, and 31 deg C), and relative humidities at 4:00 pm
were 35, 16, and 27 percent, respectively.  Leaves on shrubs and
succulent herbaceous growth depressed the fire in 1975.  A single Lewis'
mockorange was followed during the study.  The plant was dormant during
the first fire, but leaves were beginning to emerge at the time of the
second fire and were completely emerged at the time of the third fire.
With each successive fire, average sprout height decreased.  Reduced
growth following the second and third fires may have resulted from the
advanced phenological stage at the time of those fires.  Sprout height
and number were measured the first growing season following each fire.
Crown height and diameter were measured during the second postfire
growing season [23].

             No. basal sprouts          Average sprout height (ft)
  1965               14                         2.0 (61 cm)
  1970               19                         1.5 (46 cm)     
  1975               16                         1.0 (30 cm)


                  Crown height (ft)         Crown diameter (ft)
  prefire            7.0 (213 cm)               1.5 (46 cm)

  1966               4.0 (122 cm)               2.0 (61 cm)
  1971               2.5 (76 cm)                2.0 (61 cm)
  1976               2.5 (76 cm)                1.5 (46 cm)



DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE : 
NO-ENTRY


FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS : 
Lewis' mockorange palatability increases following fire.  After a spring
fire in northern Idaho, utilization of Lewis' mockorange by Rocky
Mountain elk was significantly (p<0.05) greater on recently burned sites
than on adjacent unburned sites [21].

                     % of available twigs browsed

                    1st season         2nd season 
      
Control                 1.3                0.6 
Burn                   36.3               30.0

Allometric equations, which can be used to estimate fuel quantities,
have been developed for Lewis' mockorange.  The equations use basal stem
diameter to estimate foliage biomass and total biomass [5].

References for species: Philadelphus lewisii

1. Asherin, Duane A. 1975. Changes in elk use and available browse production on north Idaho winter ranges following prescribed burning. In: Hieb, S., ed. Proceedings, elk logging-roads symposium; [Date of conference unknown]; Moscow, ID. [Place of publication unknown]: [Publisher unknown]. 122-134. [17049]

2. Balfour, Patty M. 1989. Effects of forest herbicides on some important wildlife forage species. Victoria, BC: British Columbia Ministry of Forests, Research Branch. 58 p. [12148]

3. Bernard, Stephen R.; Brown, Kenneth F. 1977. Distribution of mammals, reptiles, and amphibians by BLM physiographic regions and A.W. Kuchler's associations for the eleven western states. Tech. Note 301. Denver, CO: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. 169 p. [434]

4. Blower, Dan. 1982. Key winter forage plants for B.C. ungulates. Victoria, BC: British Columbia Ministry of the Environment, Terrestrial Studies Branch. [17065]

5. Brown, J. K. 1976. Estimating shrub biomass from basal stem diameters. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 6: 153-358. [10107]

6. Carson, Robert G.; Peek, James M. 1987. Mule deer habitat selection patterns in northcentral Washington. Journal of Wildlife Management. 51(1): 46-51. [608]

7. Detling, LeRoy E. 1961. The chaparral formation of southwestern Oregon, with considerations of its postglacial history. Ecology. 42(2): 348-357. [6360]

8. Wagonfehr, Bob. 1987. Chaparral and the Tonto land management plan. In: Wagner, Michael R., ed. Challenges and opportunities in chaparral management: Proceedings of the Southwestern Society of American Foresters annual fall meeting; 1986 November 12-14; Prescott, AZ. SAF Publication No. SAF 87.10. Flagstaff, AZ: Northern Arizona State University and the San Francisco Peaks Chapter of the Society of American Foresters: 14. [5654]

9. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Washington, DC: Society of American Foresters. 148 p. [905]

10. Fischer, William C.; Bradley, Anne F. 1987. Fire ecology of western Montana forest habitat types. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-223. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 95 p. [633]

11. Franklin, Jerry F.; Dyrness, C. T. 1973. Natural vegetation of Oregon and Washington. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-8. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 417 p. [961]

12. Garrison, George A.; Bjugstad, Ardell J.; Duncan, Don A.; [and others]. 1977. Vegetation and environmental features of forest and range ecosystems. Agric. Handb. 475. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 68 p. [998]

13. Heady, Harold F., ed. 1988. The Vale rangeland rehabilitation program: an evaluation. Resour. Bull. PNW-RB-157. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station; U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. 151 p. [5726]

14. Hickman, James C., ed. 1993. The Jepson manual: Higher plants of California. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. 1400 p. [21992]

15. Hitchcock, C. Leo; Cronquist, Arthur. 1973. Flora of the Pacific Northwest. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press. 730 p. [1168]

16. Hopkins, William E.; Kovalchik, Bernard L. 1983. Plant associations of the Crooked River National Grassland. R6 Ecol 133-1983. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region. 98 p. [1193]

17. Idaho State Department of Commerce and Development. [n.d.]. Idaho wild flowers. Boise, ID: Idaho State Department of Commerce and Development. Pamphlet. 10 p. [17999]

18. Kartesz, John T. 1994. A synonymized checklist of the vascular flora of the United States, Canada, and Greenland. Volume II--thesaurus. 2nd ed. Portland, OR: Timber Press. 816 p. [23878]

19. Kramer, Neal B.; Johnson, Frederic D. 1987. Mature forest seed banks of three habitat types in central Idaho. Canadian Journal of Botany. 65: 1961-1966. [3961]

20. Kuchler, A. W. 1964. Manual to accompany the map of potential vegetation of the conterminous United States. Special Publication No. 36. New York: American Geographical Society. 77 p. [1384]

21. Leege, Thomas A. 1969. Burning seral brush ranges for big game in northern Idaho. Transactions, North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference. 34: 429-438. [144]

22. Leege, Thomas A. 1978. Changes in browse production after burning vs. slashing and burning on the four cardinal aspects--Polar Ridge. Job Completion Report No. W-160-R. Elk ecology: Range rehabilitation by spring burning: July 1, 1967 to June 30, 1978. Boise, ID: Idaho Department of Fish & Game. 20 p. [17171]

23. Leege, Thomas A. 1979. Effects of repeated prescribed burns on northern Idaho elk browse. Northwest Science. 53(2): 107-113. [5116]

24. Leege, Thomas A.; Hickey, William O. 1971. Sprouting of northern Idaho shrubs after prescribed burning. Journal of Wildlife Management. 35(3): 508-515. [1437]

25. McCune, Bruce. 1977. Vegetation development on a low elevation talus slope in western Montana. Northwest Science. 51(3): 198-207. [21547]

26. Means, Joseph Earl. 1980. Dry coniferous forests in the western Oregon Cascades. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University. 264 p. Dissertation. [5767]

27. Miller, Daniel L.; Kidd, Frank A. 1983. Shrub control in the Inland Northwest--a summary of herbicide test results. Forestry Research Note RN-83-4. Lewiston, ID: Potlatch Corporation. 49 p. [7861]

28. Mirov, N. T.; Kraebel, C. J. 1937. Collecting and propagating the seeds of California wild plants. Res. Note No. 18. Berkeley, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, California Forest and Range Experiment Station. 27 p. [9787]

29. Morris, Melvin S.; Schwartz, John E. 1957. Mule deer and elk food habits on the National Bison Range. Journal of Wildlife Management. 21(2): 189-193. [14150]

30. Moseley, Robert K. 1992. Rare plant conservation in Idaho. Journal of the Idaho Academy of Science. 28(2): 82-93. [22293]

31. Mueggler, Walter F. 1966. Herbicide treatment of browse on a big-game winter range in northern Idaho. Journal of Wildlife Management. 30(1): 141-151. [8427]

32. Munz, Philip A. 1973. A California flora and supplement. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. 1905 p. [6155]

33. Orme, Mark L.; Leege, Thomas A. 1980. Phenology of shrubs on a north Idaho elk range. Northwest Science. 54(3): 187-198. [1800]

34. Pojar, Jim; MacKinnon, Andy, eds. 1994. Plants of the Pacific Northwest coast: Washington, Oregon, British Columbia and Alaska. Redmond, WA: Lone Pine Publishing. 526 p. [25159]

35. Raunkiaer, C. 1934. The life forms of plants and statistical plant geography. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 632 p. [2843]

36. Sampson, Arthur W.; Jespersen, Beryl S. 1963. California range brushlands and browse plants. Berkeley, CA: University of California, Division of Agricultural Sciences, California Agricultural Experiment Station, Extension Service. 162 p. [3240]

37. Shaw, Nancy L. 1992. Recruitment and growth of Pacific willow and sandbar willow seedlings in response to season and intensity of cattle grazing. In: Clary, Warren P.; McArthur, E. Durant; Bedunah, Don; Wambolt, Carl L., compilers. Proceedings--symposium on ecology and management of riparian shrub communities; 1991 May 29-31; Sun Valley, ID. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-289. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station: 130-137. [19106]

38. Steele, Robert; Geier-Hayes, Kathleen. 1989. The Douglas-fir/ninebark habitat type in central Idaho: succession and management. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-252. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 65 p. [8136]

39. Stickney, Peter F. 1974. Philadelphus lewisii Pursh. Lewis mockorange. In: Schopmeyer, C. S., ed. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agriculture Handbook No. 450. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 580-581. [7725]

40. Stickney, Peter F. 1989. Seral origin of species originating in northern Rocky Mountain forests. Unpublished draft on file at: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT; RWU 4403 files. 10 p. [20090]

41. Sugihara, Neil G.; Reed, Lois J.; Lenihan, James M. 1987. Vegetation of the Bald Hills oak woodlands, Redwood National Park, California. Madrono. 34(3): 193-208. [3788]

42. Thilenius, John Frederick. 1960. Forage utilization by cattle and white-tailed deer on a northern Idaho forest range. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho. 87 p. Thesis. [5910]

43. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 1937. Range plant handbook. Washington, DC. 532 p. [2387]

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45. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Biological Survey. [n.d.]. NP Flora [Data base]. Davis, CA: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Biological Survey. [23119]

46. Van Dersal, William R. 1938. Native woody plants of the United States, their erosion-control and wildlife values. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture. 362 p. [4240]

47. Wilkins, Bruce T. 1957. Range use, food habits, and agricultural relationships of the mule deer, Bridger Mountains, Montana. Journal of Wildlife Management. 21(2): 159-169. [1411]

48. Wittinger, W. T.; Pengelly, W. L.; Irwin, L. L.; Peek, J. M. 1977. A 20-year record of shrub succession in logged areas in the cedar- hemlock zone of northern Idaho. Northwest Science. 51(3): 161-171. [6828]

Related categories for Species: Philadelphus lewisii | Lewis' Mockorange