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Wildlife, Animals, and Plants |
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INTRODUCTORY
ABBREVIATION:PRUVIR SYNONYMS:No entry NRCS PLANT CODE:
PRVI COMMON NAMES:
chokecherry
TAXONOMY:
The fully documented scientific name of chokecherry is Prunus virginiana
L. (Rosaceae) [58,72,73,80]. Recognized varieties are: LIFE FORM:Tree-shrub FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS:No special status OTHER STATUS:No entry AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION:Johnson, Kathleen A. (2000, March). Prunus virginiana. In: Remainder of Citation Species Index FEIS Home DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION:
Chokecherry is widely distributed throughout southern Canada and much of
the United States. It occurs from Newfoundland to British Columbia and
south to North Carolina, Tennessee, Missouri, Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas,
New Mexico, California, and northern Mexico. Plants showing a gradation from black chokecherry to common chokecherry occur in Kansas and Nebraska. The three varieties are distributed as follows [59,72,73]: ECOSYSTEMS:
FRES10 White-red-jack pine STATES:
BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS:
1 Northern Pacific Border KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS:
K002 Cedar-hemlock-Douglas-fir forest SAF COVER TYPES:
1 Jack pine SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES:
107 Western juniper/big sagebrush/bluebunch wheatgrass HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES:
The 3 chokecherry varieties occur in numerous habitat types and plant communities. Chokecherry often forms mixed stands with other tall shrubs. Common plant associates of chokecherry in some areas are listed below by state or province. VALUE AND USE
WOOD PRODUCTS VALUE:Chokecherry wood is heavy, hard and close-grained, but rarely develops a trunk large enough to be commercially useful [116]. IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE:
Chokecherry is widely regarded as an important wildlife food plant and provides habitat, watershed protection, and species diversity [36,92,121,140,147]. Fruits, leaves, and twigs are utilized. Large mammals including bears [34,83,124], moose [69,118,120,144], coyotes [38], bighorn sheep [154,160], pronghorn [41], elk [32,49,74,88,94], and deer use chokecherry as browse [7,8,26,132,,146,147,148,149,150,156]. Chokecherry is also a food source for small mammals [37,38,62,70]. The fruits are important food for many birds [15,20,54,103]. Cattle and domestic sheep also eat chokecherry, and because of its toxicity (see below), poisoning sometimes occurs. Livestock normally do not eat fatal quantities except when other forage is scarce [66,116,166]. PALATABILITY:
Chokecherry is moderately palatable to all classes of livestock,
although it is more heavily browsed by domestic sheep than by cattle [36,140].
It is a preferred mule deer browse on many winter ranges throughout the Intermountain West and Northern Great Plains [39,42]. CO MT ND UT WY Cattle Fair Fair Fair Fair Fair Domestic sheep Good Good Good Fair Good Horses Poor Poor ---- Poor Poor Pronghorn ---- ---- Good Poor Poor Elk Poor Fair ---- Good Fair Mule deer Fair Fair Good Good Good Small mammals Good Good ---- Good Good Small nongame birds Good Good ---- Good Good Upland game birds Fair Good Good Good Good Waterfowl ---- ---- ---- Poor Poor NUTRITIONAL VALUE:The nutritional value of chokecherry is relatively high in comparison with that of other western browse species [19,88,168]. It has 38.8% dry matter digestibility and is 8.7% crude protein [35]. Crude protein levels do not appreciably decrease as winter progresses [39]. Dittberner and Olson [42] rate chokecherry good in energy value and poor in protein value. Seasonal trends in the nutritive content of chokecherry leaves and stems in the Black Hills of South Dakota are presented below. Units are in percent, on an oven-dry basis [39]. Spring Summer Fall
leaves/stems leaves/stems leaves/stems
crude protein 21.9/17.4 15.2/9.5 6.6/8.8
cellulose 12.3/19.7 12.6/22.8 14.7/24.2
ash 5.9/5.4 6.2/4.3 6.1/3.0
calcium 1.12/0.9 1.8/1.5 2.33/1.66
phosphorus 0.51/0.41 0.39/0.21 0.37/0.21
COVER VALUE:Chokecherry provides important cover and habitat for many bird species [115,116,117,118,119,120,121,122,123,124], small mammals [4,44,55,139,146,165], large mammals, and livestock [16,24,45,65,66,159]. Chokecherry is an excellent shrub for providing thermal cover and erosion control in fisheries [66]. The degree to which chokecherry provides cover for wildlife species is as follows [42]: CO MT ND UT WY Pronghorn ---- Fair Good Poor Fair Elk Good Fair ---- Good Good Mule deer Good Good Good Good Good White-tailed deer Good Good Good ---- Good Small mammals Good Good ---- Good Good Small nongame birds Good Good Good Good Good Upland game birds Good Good Good Good Good Waterfowl ---- ---- ---- Poor Poor VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES:Chokecherry has been selected as a revegetation species for wildlife habitat [110,127,166], shelterbelts [131], mine spoils [109], and soil stabilization [102,104,131]. Chokecherry exhibited salt tolerance in a greenhouse study [155]. Chokecherry can be propagated from seed or rhizome cuttings [60,91,102,108,129,134,166]. About half of unstratified seed germinates within 60 days of collection; delayed germination can occur up to 120 days of sowing [166]. More consistent germination is achieved following cool, moist stratification lasting from 120 to 160 days at 36 to 41 degrees Fahrenheit (2.2-5 oC) [60,108,109]. In a heat-treatment field study, using thermocouples inserted into seedcoats, chokecherry germination was doubled to quadrupled by temperatures ranging from 180 to 280 degrees Fahrenheit (82-138 oC)[127]. Nursery-grown seedlings of chokecherry establish satisfactorily if planted free of competition on sites with at least 15 inches (38 cm) of annual precipitation. Young plants are not tolerant of competing vegetation for 2 to 3 years following planting [110].
OTHER USES AND VALUES:Chokecherry plants are widely used as ornamentals. Chokecherry produces an abundance of attractive white flowers characterized by a strong, sweet, almondlike fragrance. This species is also valued for its fruit. Plantings increase habitat and natural food supplies for birds frequenting residential areas. Chokecherry is extensively planted for windbreaks in the prairie, plains, and western mountains [166]. Chokecherries are edible and, although somewhat astringent, are relatively sweet when fully ripe. Fruits are used to make wines, syrups, jellies, and jams. Indigenous peoples gathered chokecherries and used them to make pemmican and treat cold sores [68,84,147]. The Paiutes made a medicinal tea from the leaves and twigs to treat colds and rheumatism [113]. MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS:Grazing: Chokecherry is moderately tolerant of browsing [66], but heavy grazing by livestock and wild ungulates has impacted populations in many areas, especially the northern Great Plains [64,65,81,98,179]. Chokecherry foliage can be poisonous to grazing livestock [78,106,116,153]. Research has identified the toxic compound in chokecherry as the cyanogenic glycoside prunasin [101]. One-half gram of prunasin can produce approximately 46 mg of hydrogen cyanide (HCN); daily doses of 50 mg HCN/1 kg body weight are considered dangerous. Hydrogen cyanide is liberated either in the plant as a result of frost damage or in the animal during digestion. Results of that study indicated that prunasin concentrations are highest (5%) in the new stems and newly initiated leaves of chokecherry. Elevated levels (greater than 2.5%) are maintained in the leaves throughout the summer, but prunasin content of new twigs gradually diminishes over the season. The previous season's growth is generally not as toxic (1.2 to 2.2%) [166]. Pest management concerns: Chokecherry can be controlled by herbicides or plowing [116]. In the northeastern United States chokecherry is a primary host of the eastern tent caterpillar [164]. Chokecherry is susceptible to attack by the fungus Plowrightia stansburiana, which causes knotlike cankers to develop on stems. This condition eventually kills infected stems [92]. Afflicted plants usually have a shortened life span [166]. BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS:
Chokecherry is a native, deciduous, thicket-forming erect shrub or small
tree. Stems are numerous and slender, either branching from the base or
with main branches upright and spreading [166]. Heights vary
considerably according to variety and site quality, ranging from 3 to
19.5 feet (1-6 m) [73]. In the Great Basin,
chokecherry may grow to almost 40 feet (12 m) with trunk diameters of
approximately 8 inches (20 cm) [92]. Perfect
flowers are borne on leafy twigs of the season. Fruits are drupes, each
containing a small stone [73]. Chokecherries have a network of
rhizomes and a deep root system established at
intervals along the rhizomes [129,140,175]. Roots may extend laterally more than 35 feet (10.6 m) and vertically more than 6 feet (1.8 m) [175]. Rhizomes range from 0.4 to 0.8 inch (1-2 cm) in diameter [129]. RAUNKIAER LIFE FORM:Phanerophyte REGENERATION PROCESSES:
Chokecherry reproduces sexually and vegetatively. In laboratory
experiments involving excised rhizomes which were approximately 11 years
of age, Schier [129] observed that chokecherry rhizomes sprouted at a faster
rate and had higher sprouting percentages than Gambel oak (Quercus
gambelii) rhizomes. SITE CHARACTERISTICS:
In the western United States, chokecherry grows at low to mid-elevations in positions in the landscape where combinations of soil and topography permit greater than average accumulation of moisture. These sites include riparian areas, wooded draws, and steep ravines [43,64,65,66,149,163]. Soils supporting chokecherry are variable, ranging from Entisols to Mollisols, and soil texture ranges from silt to sandy loam. Chokecherry can tolerate weakly saline soils but is intolerant of poor drainage and prolonged flooding [66]. SUCCESSIONAL STATUS:
Because chokecherry occurs so widely, it is reported in numerous habitat types and plant associations that range from post-disturbance invaders to early-successional to climax or stable. It grows in sparse stands, dense thickets, and under open forest canopies [64,66,116,119]. It is shade tolerant [31,64,99,100], but reaches its greatest density near forest edges [64,65]. Plant association descriptions for most the studies discussed below appear in the Distribution and Occurrence section of this species report. SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT:Generally chokecherry plants leaf out in spring to early summer and flower 1 to 3 weeks later, with fruits maturing in late summer to fall [166]. Fruits dehisce soon after maturity [59]. Average date of phenological stages for chokecherry east and west of the Continental Divide in Montana from 1928 to 1937 are presented below [130]: East Divide West Divide leaf buds burst May 2 April 29 leaves full grown June 11 May 17 flowers start June 4 May 19 flowers end June 17 June 11 fruits ripe August 22 August 14 leaves start to color August 31 September 15 leaves begin to fall September 10 September 28 seed fall starts September 12 September 19 leaves fallen/withered September 30 October 14 FIRE ECOLOGYFIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS:
Chokecherry is well adapted to disturbance by fire [5,25,52,97,105,174,177]. Although susceptible to to top-kill by fire, it resprouts rapidly and prolifically from surviving root crowns and rhizomes [51,97,105,162,166].
Several studies reporting chokecherry recovery by sprouting are discussed in the Fire Effects section of this report. Seed germination improves with heat treatment, suggesting scarification by fire is an important adaptation [127]. Postfire regeneration probably also involves the germination of off-site seed dispersed by mammals and birds [162].
POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY:
Tree with adventitious-bud root crown/soboliferous species root sucker FIRE EFFECTS
IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT:
Fire often kills aboveground chokecherry stems and foliage, but it quickly resprouts, either the same year following a spring burn, or by the next growing season [97,105,162,166,177]. In the South Dakota Black Hills chokecherry sprouts were double the preburn numbers within 2 months of an early May burn [51]. Conversely, in an early May prescribed burn in central Alberta quaking aspen parkland, chokecherry shrubs did not resprout within the first 3 months following burning [63]. Fire intensity was not described for either study. DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT:No entry PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE:
Most studies report either an increase in chokecherry in the years following fire, or an increase followed by a return to prefire numbers. After wildfires in the oakbrush zone in Utah, McKell [105] reported twice as many chokecherry stems sprouting from root crowns on 1-year-old burns than on adjacent unburned sites. A reduction to prefire densities occurred within 18 years. DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE:No entry FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS:
Chokecherry is a component of persistent, fire-maintained seral shrubfields on steep slopes in Northern Idaho. Fuels in shrubfields differ in quantity and distribution from those on forested sites. Herbaceous and large woody fuels are relatively light. Live and dead shrub biomass, which includes chokecherry, can reach nearly 20 tons per acre. After fires, which are severe during summer drought conditions, dense shrub cover regenerates within 10 years. Trees regenerate slowly or not at all on these dry sites, because of erosion, depleted soil organic matter, high soil temperatures, and lack of seed [138]. Prunus virginiana: References1. Abrams, Marc D.; Dickmann, Donald I. 1982. Early revegetation of clear-cut and burned jack pine sites in northern lower Michigan. Canadian Journal of Botany. 60: 946-954. [7238] 2. Abrams, Marc D.; Nowacki, Gregory J. 1992. Historical variation in fire, oak recruitment, and post-logging accelerated succession in central Pennsylvania. 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