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Wildlife, Animals, and Plants
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Introductory
SPECIES: Quercus agrifolia | Coast Live Oak
ABBREVIATION :
QUEAGR
SYNONYMS :
NO-ENTRY
SCS PLANT CODE :
QUAG
COMMON NAMES :
coast live oak
encina
California live oak
TAXONOMY :
The currently accepted scientific name for coast live oak is Quercus
agrifolia Nee. It has been placed in the black oak subgenus
(Erythrobalanus) [10,33,35,46,58]. Recognized varieties are as follows:
Q. agrifolia var. agrifolia [18]
Q. agrifolia var. frutescens Engelm. [35,58]
Q. agrifolia var. oxyadenia (Torr.) J. T. Howell [35,46,58]
Quercus agrifolia variety frutescens is a shrubby chaparral form of
coast live oak. Quercus agrifolia variety oxyadenia has densely
stellate leaves and occurs in interior cismontane regions of Riverside
and San Diego counties, California [58].
Coast live oak may hybridize with California scrub oak (Q. dumosa), but
the cross is not definite [58]. The following crosses have been
determined:
(1) Q. agrifolia x Q. kelloggii (California black oak) = Q. XChasei McMinn
This hybrid produces acorn that mature in the second year and is
found in Monterey and Santa Cruz counties [58].
(2) Q. agrifolia var. oxyadenia x Q. kelloggii = Q. XGanderi C. B. Wolf
This hybrid produces acorns that mature in 1 year and occurs in
San Diego County [10,46,58].
(3) Q. agrifolia var. frutescens x Q. wislizenii (interior live oak)
[10,35,85].
LIFE FORM :
Tree, Shrub
FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS :
No special status
OTHER STATUS :
The California walnut (Juglans californica) woodland, where coast live
oak frequently codominates, is severely threatened by urbanization. The
Nature Conservancy, in cooperation with the state of California, has
listed it as one of California's rare and imperiled natural communities
[4,11,34].
COMPILED BY AND DATE :
Janet L. Howard, 1992
LAST REVISED BY AND DATE :
NO-ENTRY
AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION :
Howard, Janet L. 1992. Quercus agrifolia. In: Remainder of Citation
DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
SPECIES: Quercus agrifolia | Coast Live Oak
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION :
Coast is distributed along the Coast, Transverse, and Peninsular ranges
and the Sierra de Juarez from Sonoma County, California south to Canada
El Piquillo, Baja California [5,35,54,58]. Limited inland populations
occur along watercourses in the Central Valley [38,42]. Coast live oak
is also found on the Channel Islands of Santa Rosa and Santa Cruz
[18,65].
ECOSYSTEMS :
FRES20 Douglas-fir
FRES21 Ponderosa pine
FRES28 Western hardwoods
FRES34 Chaparral - mountain shrub
FRES42 Annual grasslands
STATES :
CA MEXICO
ADMINISTRATIVE UNITS :
CHIS PAAL PINN PORE SAMO
BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS :
3 Southern Pacific Border
KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS :
K006 Redwood forest
K009 Pine - cypress forest
K029 California mixed evergreen forest
K030 California oakwoods
K033 Chaparral
K035 Coastal sagebrush
K048 California steppe
SAF COVER TYPES :
221 Red alder
231 Port-Orford-cedar
232 Redwood
234 Douglas-fir - tanoak - Pacific madrone
244 Pacific ponderosa pine - Douglas-fir
245 Pacific ponderosa pine
246 California black oak
248 Knobcone pine
249 Canyon live oak
250 Blue oak - Digger pine
255 California coast live oak
SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES :
NO-ENTRY
HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES :
Coast live oak is the most conspicuous tree in lower elevation woodlands
of southern California [33]. The southern oak woodland, describing
various woodlands of southern California, contains many phases in which
coast live oak is dominant or codominant. The coast live oak phase
varies in structure from dense stands to open savannas [17,19]. Coast
live oak woodland may be monospecific or mixed. Frequent codominants
include bigcone Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga macrocarpa) and Engelmann oak
(Quercus engelmannii) [32]. Southern California coast live oak woodland
also has a chaparral phase, dominated by shrubby coast live oak
subjected to frequent fire. Canyon live oak (Q. chrysolepis) is a
common chaparral codominant [39]. Coast live oak frequently codominates
in California walnut woodland [32].
Coast live oak is a frequent dominant or codominant of mixed evergreen
forests of northern and southern California [33,79], where these oaks
codominate with valley oak (Q. lobata), blue oak (Q. douglasii),
California black oak, interior live oak, California bay (Umbellularia
californica), and Digger pine (Pinus sabiniana) [17]. In riparian
areas, it codominates with western sycamore (Plantus racemosa), white
alder (Alnus rhombifolia), and red alder (A. rubra).
Classifications naming coast live oak as a dominant or indicator species
are as follows:
A classification system for California's rangelands [1].
Blue oak communities in California [2].
California valley grassland [11].
Association types in the North Coast Ranges of California [17].
Plant communities of Santa Rosa Island, Channel Islands National Park [18].
Plant communities of Ring Mountain Preserve, Marin County, California [27].
Oak woodland [34].
Preliminary descriptions of the terrestrial natural communities of
California [37]
Vegetation types of the San Bernadino Mountains [39].
The southern California islands [65].
Mixed evergreen forest [79].
VALUE AND USE
SPECIES: Quercus agrifolia | Coast Live Oak
WOOD PRODUCTS VALUE :
Canyon live oak wood is primarily used for fuel. Some commercial
charcoal is made from the wood. It is unsuitable for lumber, as it
cracks easily and warps badly [67].
IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE :
This species provides critical wildlife habitat. Coast live oak
woodlands are preferred habitat for black bear and black-tailed deer
[69]. They are also preferred by the federally endangered least Bell's
vireo [60]. Western sycamore-coast live oak communities in the South
Coast Ranges provide wintering grounds for 32 species of birds, at a
density of 251 birds per acre (620/ha) [25]. The federally endangered
least tern nests within this community [44]. Coast live oak provides
browse for black-tailed deer and various rodents and lagomorphs [77].
Roots are eaten by feral pig and pocket gopher [63]. Acorns are heavily
consumed by black bear, feral pig, black-tailed deer, rodents, and
various upland game and nongame birds [77]. Coast live oak litter
provides excellent hunting opportunities for the insectivorous vagrant
and ornate shrews [69].
Cattle eat coast live oak sprouts [64]. Most livestock do not readily
browse mature foliage, although goats will eat it year-round [31].
Livestock readily consume the acorns [77].
PALATABILITY :
The palatability of coast live oak foliage has been rated useless for
cattle and horses, poor to useless for sheep, and fair to poor for
black-tailed deer [77].
NUTRITIONAL VALUE :
Nutritional information on coast live oak foliage is scant. One study
found the protein content of leaves was 4.6 percent in December.
Springtime protein levels were not determined. However, protein content
of interior live oak, a closely related species, was 17.6 percent in May
[8].
Percent composition of coast live oak acorns is 9 percent water, 6.26
percent protein, 16.75 fat, and 54.57 percent carbohydrate [3].
COVER VALUE :
NO-ENTRY
VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES :
Coast live oak is favored for use in rehabilitation projects in the
Coast Ranges. It is used for watershed improvement, restoration, and
wildlife rehabilitation projects [29,40,64]. In the Sepulveda Wildlife
Reserve of Los Angeles County, nursery seedlings were planted for slope
stabilization and wildlife habitat improvement. Survival of these
seedlings was between 40 to 75 percent after 3 years [61]. Transplants
along the Santa Margarita River in San Diego County have also shown good
survival [72]. In eastern Ventura County, coast live oak was planted to
help restore the ecotone between saltbush (Atriplex spp.), black sage
(Salvia mellifera), and annual grassland communities [62]. Coast live
oak is also established by acorn plantings. In the Berkeley Hills,
seedlings grown from locally collected acorns showed 75 percent survival
in their first year. Seedlings were hand-watered twice during summer
because of drought conditions [73]. Seedling survival is enhanced by
weeding competitors, providing protection against herbivores and acorn
predators with above- and belowground wire caging, and providing
microsite shading. Acorns are collected from local oaks in late fall.
Planting density recommendations and other cultivation methods have been
detailed [59,81].
Large oak trees slated for removal because of roadway or other
construction have been successfully transplanted onto favorable sites
using heavy equipment [20].
OTHER USES AND VALUES :
NO-ENTRY
MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
North coast populations of this tree are stable, but the species is in
decline in southern California [57,80]. Threats to this oak include
urban and rural development, increased recreational use of oak
woodlands, and the cutting of trees for firewood [67,80]. Factors
hampering seedling recruitment are discussed under regeneration.
Diseases: Trees watered during summer may be invaded by root
(Armillaria mellea) and crown (Phytophthora spp.) rots. During drought,
the fungus Diplodia quercina can cause branch dieback. Pit scale
insects (Asterolecanium minus) damage foliage [36].
BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
SPECIES: Quercus agrifolia | Coast Live Oak
GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS :
Coast live oak is a native, drought-resistant, evergreen tree. It is
typically from 20 to 40 feet (6-12 m) tall, occasionally reaching up to
80 feet (24 m) in height. Trees usually range from 1 to 4 feet (0.3-1.2
m) in d.b.h. Open-grown crowns are broad and dense, with foliage often
reaching the ground. Trunks are usually short, forking into large,
wide-spreading branches. Trees in dense stands have irregular crowns
and few lower branches. The bark of young trees is smooth, developing
deep furrows with age. The inner bark and cork layers are thick
[22,67]. The root system is composed of a deep taproot, usually
nonfunctional in large trees; several deep main roots tapping
groundwater; extensive horizontal root branches; and surface-feeding
roots [19,66]. Coast live oak stands are typically from 40 to 110 years
of age [22]. Individual trees may live over 250 years [67].
RAUNKIAER LIFE FORM :
Phanerophyte
REGENERATION PROCESSES :
Flowering of coast live oak is triggered by warm temperature. This is
in contrast to many other black oaks, which flower in response to
photoperiod [85]. Trees are wind pollinated. Information on the age of
sexual maturity and maximum production of acorns is lacking. Coast live
oak retains its acorns longer than other California oaks. Most of its
acorns are dropped in fall, but some remain attached to trees until
spring. This is an adaptive advantage because these acorns are less
likely to be consumed by ground-dwelling seed predators. Animals such
as squirrels, magpie, and scrub jay, however, consume tree-borne acorns.
Acorns fall beneath the parent plant or are disseminated by various
birds and rodents. Seed-caching animals such as scrub jay and
California ground squirrel are important to species survival, as acorns
buried by these animals are most likely to develop into seedlings [15].
Coast live oak is the only black oak in California whose acorns develop
in 1 year [10,67]. There is no dormancy requirement, and acorns
germinate 15 to 50 days after falling [12,32,55]. Reports of seed
viability vary. Griffin [32] found 100 percent viability of acorns
collected in Carmel Valley, while Mirov and Kraebel [55] reported 73
percent germination in acorns collected in Berkeley. Acorns with low
moisture content show higher rates of germination and produce taller
seedlings than do acorns with high moisture content, but unviable seed
is not a serious problem for this species [41,59]. Predation of fallen
acorns, however, is very high, and loss of potential trees is
considerable. Acorn predators may consume 100 percent of a year's mast.
Acorn predation and loss of seedlings to herbivory have been cited as
the primary cause of current recruitment failure in southern California
populations of coast live oak [59].
Seedling survival rates are low. At sites on the Central and South
Coast ranges, the current sapling-to-tree ratios are 1:3 or worse [57].
Seedling top-growth is slow under natural conditions, with early
development concentrated on rapid, early root growth [49]. Black-tailed
deer cause considerable mortality of young trees. Griffin [32] found
seedlings on the most favorable sites at the Hastings Natural History
Reservation of Carmel Valley required a minimum of 20 years to grow
above the browse line. Livestock also limit recruitment. Natural
establishment of coast live oak resumed in Solstice Canyon Park in the
Santa Monica Mountains once cattle were removed [64]. Mortality also
results from root hebivory by pocket gopher and feral pig, and from
drought [15,63]. At the Hastings Natural History Reservation, survival
of 2-year-old seedlings protected from herbivory was 69 percent. By the
fourth year, however, 100 percent of these seedlings had succumbed to
drought [32]. Recruitment is best among germinants growing in shade.
Eighty percent of seedlings found on sites in the Santa Ynez Valley of
Santa Barbara County were growing under purple sage (Salvia leucophylla)
or California sagebrush (Artemisia californica). Another 15 percent
were under mature coast live oak. Mortality due to herbivory was
considerably higher among seedlings under parent trees [13]. Under
ideal conditions, coast live oak is capable of rapid growth. Nursery
seedlings have attained heights of 5 to 8 feet (15.2-24.4 m) in 2 years
[81].
Vegetative: Coast live oak sprouts from the root crown and trunk
following cutting or burning [22,66,67].
SITE CHARACTERISTICS :
Coast live oak occurs in a mediterranean climate, characterized by mild,
wet winters and hot, dry summers. Climate severity is modified near the
coast, where trees receive more annual precipitation than do inland
populations [22]. Trees generally occur on mesic sites such as north
slopes, alluvial terraces, and canyon bottoms [11]. In riparian areas,
coast live oak occurs in swales or on upper banks [24,51].
Soil textures vary with site. Low-elevation coastal populations of
coast live oak generally grow in loam, while higher elevation coastal
populations are associated with shaley clay-loam soil. Inland
populations are found in sandy soil [22]. Trees on the southern
California islands grow in clay or clayey loam [18]. Coast live oak
will tolerate serpentine soils [27].
The elevational range for northern populations of coast live oak is sea
level to 3,000 feet (914 m) and for southern populations, sea level to
5,000 feet (1,524 m).
Associated overstory species not previously mentioned include tanoak
(Lithocarpus densiflora), birchleaf mountain-mahogany (Cerocarpus
betuloides), Monterey pine (Pinus radiata), and California boxelder
(Acer negundo ssp. californicum) [1,9,14,26,53].
Understory associates: Common shrub associates include California
blackberry (Rubus ursinus), poison-oak (Toxicodendron diversilobum),
ocean spray (Holodiscus discolor), coffeeberry (Rhamnus californica),
toyon (Heteromeles arbutifolia), chamise (Adenostoma fasciculatum),
California scrub oak (Quercus dumosa), manzanita (Arctostaphylos spp.),
California wild grape (Vitis californica), California sagebrush, and
jimbush ceanothus (Ceanothus sorediatus). Herbaceous associates include
black sage, purple sage, brakenfern (Pteridium aquilinum), California
buckwheat (Eriogonum fasciculatum), brome (Bromus spp.), wild oat (Avena
fatua), Mediterranean barley (Criteston marinum spp. gussoneanum),
smallflower melicgrass (Melica californica), gland cinquefoil
(Potentilla glandulosa), and common yarrow (Achillea millefolium)
[1,19,29,30,70].
Micorrhizal associates: Coast live oak is commonly infected with
Dothiorelli querci and Phytophthora cinnamomi [82].
SUCCESSIONAL STATUS :
Facultative Seral Species
Coast live oak is tolerant of shade throughout its life [67]. Its
successional status varies. Where their ranges overlap, deciduous trees
such as blue and California black oaks are seral to coast live oak, and
coast live oak represents the climax stage of coastal oak woodlands [6].
McBride [50] , however, reported that coast live oak is seral to the
evergreen California bay in some areas of coastal northern California.
In mixed evergreen forest, the coast live oak phase is seral to a
coniferous element that was removed by logging or fire. On steep slopes
or poor sites within this belt, coast live oak represents a topographic
or edaphic climax [4].
SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT :
The seasonal development of coast live oak is as follows:
growth begins: February [56]
catkins emerge: March - April [56,58]
leaves emerge: February - April [56,58]
old leaves shed: after new leaf emergence in spring [67]
acorns ripen: September - October [55]
damaged acorns aborted: August - October [59]
acorns drop: from onset of winter storms through May [15,56]
FIRE ECOLOGY
SPECIES: Quercus agrifolia | Coast Live Oak
FIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS :
Coast live oak is the most fire resistant of all California oaks.
Adaptations to fire include evergreen leaves, thick bark, and sprouting.
Evergreen leaves allow coast live oak to allocate greater amounts of
energy to regeneration than to leaf growth. Evergreens are often better
able to conserve available nutrients than deciduous species, and are
favored in fire-prone settings [52]. Coast live oak bark is mainly
composed of live inner bark with little dead outer tissue [68]. The
vascular cambium is usually protected. Even where heavily charred,
damage typically extends only 0.5 to 0.8 inch (1.3-1.9 cm) into the bark
[67]. Because of this, trees are often able to survive crown fire.
Trees may sprout from the main trunk and upper crown even after severe
burning [68]. When trees are top-killed, they sprout from the root
crown [22,66]. Vigorous sprouting is supported by food reserves stored
in the extensive root system [19].
Historically, the woodlands in which these trees are prominent burned
frequently. Vogl [85] estimates a frequency of approximately one fire
per year in grassland savannas and coastal foothills.
Fire ecology: These oaks generate a deep litter layer except on steep
slopes [39]. Leaves contain large amounts of flammable ether extracts [75].
POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY :
Tree with adventitious-bud rootcrown/ soboliferous species root sucker
Tall shrub, adventitious-bud rootcrown
Ground residual colonizer (onsite, initial community)
Secondary colonizer - offsite seed
FIRE EFFECTS
SPECIES: Quercus agrifolia | Coast Live Oak
IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT :
Coast live oak seedlings and saplings less than 2 inches (5 cm) in
d.b.h. are top-killed by moderate-severity fire, and severe fire may
kill trees of this size [24,66]. Saplings between 2 to 6 inches (5-15
cm) in d.b.h. are top-killed by severe fire. Larger trees are usually
not top-killed by severe fire. The Soboba Fire on the San Bernadino
National Forest, classified as an extremely hot crown fire, killed only
4 percent of burned coast live oak. Ninety percent of the oaks less
than 3 inches (7.6 cm) in d.b.h. were top-killed, and 2 percent were
killed. Of trees greater than 6 inches (15.2 cm) in d.b.h., the trunks
and crowns of all but 5 percent survived the fire. Of this 5 percent, 3
percent were top-killed, and 2 percent suffered complete kill [66].
Roots are protected by an outer corky layer and the soil itself. Coast
live oak roots generally suffer little direct heat damage except feeder
roots near the soil surface [66].
Acorns on the soil surface are killed by low-severity fire, while
animal-buried acorns usually survive moderate-severity fire. Severe
fire, however, may kill even buried acorns. Following a severe fire in
Ventura County, burned sites supported no coast live oak germinants
supported no germinants the following spring, while adjacent unburned
areas produced new seedlings [21].
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT :
Mortality of coast live oak is greater when there is a considerable
shrub understory or when trees are adjacent to chaparral. Coast live
oak in the Santa Monica Mountains were killed in large numbers when a
hot chaparral fire burned into the oak woodland [78].
PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE :
Coast live oak generally recovers well from fire, although severely
burned crowns, trunks, and root crowns may require several years to
sprout. Oaks are more likely to be damaged by fall fire than earlier
fires. The most common fire damage to the trunk is a basal wound
resulting in cambium death. Small wounds less than a few inches may
eventually heal with no accompanying heart rot, but larger wounds are
subject to fungal disease and insect attack [76]. Winter fire causes
the least damage [67]. Recovery of trees on the Soboba Burn was as
follows [66]:
Tree condition, May 1979
Number of Basal Basal and Crown
Tree diameter charred trees, Dead sprouts crown sprouts
(d.b.h., in.) Aug. 1974 only sprouts only
________________Percent________________
0- 3 90 2 88 1 9
3- 6 54 11 26 28 35
6-12 65 1 5 52 42
12-18 24 0 0 62 38
18+ 22 4 5 50 41
Crown density typically reaches 80 percent of preburn level in 10 years
on favorable sites [39].
Low-severity fire apparently favors regeneration. Coast live oak
populations were increased from preburn levels following a low-severity
fire in Cuyamaca State Park [45,48].
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE :
FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
Use of fire is recommended for managing coast live oak [66]. The
outstanding fire resistance of this species ensures that few large trees
will be killed by moderate-severity prescribed fire. Natural
regeneration has improved following prescribed burning [48]. Fire will
eliminate competing conifers from areas where they are invading oak
woodland [39]. Regeneration is also favored because scrub jays prefer
burns as acorn-caching sites [59].
Large trees do not always sprout at the first postfire growing season,
and Plumb and Gomez [67] recommend waiting at least one growing season,
possibly up to three, before cutting large trees with uncertain
potential for crown survival. The following guide suggests when to
harvest coast live oak, based upon tree size and degree of trunk char*
[66]:
Less than 6 in. d.b.h. 6-12 in. d.b.h. More than 12 in. d.b.h.
______________________ ______________________ _______________________
Light Medium Heavy Light Medium Heavy Light Medium Heavy
char char char char char char char char char
Lv Lv Cut Lv Lv Lv Lv Lv Lv
____________________________________________________________________________
*Assumes that 100% of trunk circumference is affected, as follows:
Light=spotty char or scorch, scattered pitting; Medium=continuous
charring, areas of minor reduction in bark thickness; Heavy=continuous
charring and pronounced reduction in bark thickness with wood sometimes
exposed. Lv means the tree should be left uncut for 3 yrs; Cut means
the tree can be cut immediately.
Fire managers in southern California have made fire control lines in
coast live oak woodland when planning broadcast burning of adjacent
chaparral. Potential control line sites are selected from nearby
riparian woodland areas, where the understory is burned in order to
make a fuelbreak [24].
REFERENCES
SPECIES: Quercus agrifolia | Coast Live Oak
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Index
Related categories for Species: Quercus agrifolia
| Coast Live Oak
|
 |
