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Wildlife, Animals, and Plants
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Introductory
SPECIES: Quercus chrysolepis | Canyon Live Oak
ABBREVIATION :
QUECHR
SYNONYMS :
NO-ENTRY
SCS PLANT CODE :
QUCH2
QUCHC
QUCHN
COMMON NAMES :
canyon live oak
dwarf canyon live oak
maul oak
TAXONOMY :
The currently accepted scientific name of canyon live oak is Quercus
chrysolepis Liebm. [63,64,]. Canyon live oak, which is intermediate
between the white and black oak groups, is extremely variable both
morphologically and ecologically [63,72]. Recognized varieties are
[34,39]:
Q. c. var. chrysolepis canyon live oak
Q. c. var. nana (Jepson) Jepson dwarf canyon live oak
Canyon live oak hybridizes with island oak (Q. tomentella), huckleberry
oak (Q. vaccinifolia), and Palmer's oak (Q. palmeri) [28,34,63,94].
LIFE FORM :
Tree, Shrub
FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS :
No special status
OTHER STATUS :
NO-ENTRY
COMPILED BY AND DATE :
D. Tirmenstein, August 1989
LAST REVISED BY AND DATE :
NO-ENTRY
AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION :
Tirmenstein, D. 1989. Quercus chrysolepis. In: Remainder of Citation
DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
SPECIES: Quercus chrysolepis | Canyon Live Oak
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION :
Canyon live oak grows from southwestern Oregon through the Coast Ranges
and Sierra Nevada to southern California and the mountains of Mexico
[48,72]. It is the most widely distributed of all California oaks and
occurs across an estimated 1,121,000 acres (453,846 hectares) in
California alone [21]. Canyon live oak is rare east of the
Cascade-Sierra crest but grows discontinuously on the eastern slopes of
the southern and central Sierra Nevada [28]. Scattered, disjunct
populations occur in the mountains of southwestern Nevada and in parts
of western and central Arizona, and Mexico [48,53,91]. Fossil evidence
suggests that this oak was much more widely distributed to the east
during the late Wisconsin and early Holocene [37,53].
The shrubby variety, Q. chrysolepis var. nana, occurs in California from
Trinity County eastward to the Sierra Nevada [63], and throughout the
Coast Ranges of northern California [91].
ECOSYSTEMS :
FRES20 Douglas-fir
FRES21 Ponderosa pine
FRES23 Fir - spruce
FRES26 Lodgepole pine
FRES28 Western hardwoods
FRES34 Chaparral - mountain shrub
FRES35 Pinyon - juniper
STATES :
AZ CA NV OR MEXICO
ADMINISTRATIVE UNITS :
CHIS CHIR JOTR LAME ORCA PORE
REDW SEKI WHSH YOSE
BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS :
1 Northern Pacific Border
2 Cascade Mountains
3 Southern Pacific Border
4 Sierra Mountains
7 Lower Basin and Range
12 Colorado Plateau
KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS :
K005 Mixed conifer forest
K023 Juniper - pinyon woodland
K029 California mixed evergreen forest
K030 California oakwoods
K034 Montane chaparral
SAF COVER TYPES :
231 Port Orford - cedar
233 Oregon white oak
234 Douglas-fir - tanoak - Pacific madrone
243 Sierra Nevada mixed conifer
244 Pacific ponderosa pine - Douglas-fir
245 Pacific ponderosa pine
246 California black oak
248 Knobcone pine
249 Canyon live oak
250 Blue oak - Digger pine
255 California coast live oak
SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES :
201 Blue oak woodland
202 Coast live oak woodland
203 Riparian woodland
HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES :
Canyon live oak occurs in many types of plant communities [63] and is
reportedly found, although sometimes sparingly, in every forest type of
California [8]. It is a common component of mixed-evergreen forests
made up of species such as Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), tanoak
(Lithocarpus densiflorus), chinquapin (Chrysolepsis chrysophylla), and
Pacific madrone (Arbutus menziesii) [91]. Canyon live oak also grows in
chaparral, montane chaparral, oak (Quercus spp.) woodlands, cypress
(Cupressus spp.) stands, and pinyon-juniper-oak (Pinus-Juniperus-Quercus
spp.) woodlands [4,22,45,57,78,80,91,92]. It grows in riparian areas in
parts of California, in oasis woodlands, and in higher elevation desert
communities [31,63,93]. This oak grows intermixed with Douglas-fir in
the north and bigcone Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga macrocarpa) in the south
[49,98]. Canyon live oak occasionally occurs with white fir (Abies
concolor) in higher elevation forests of northern California [91].
Dwarf canyon live oak is most commonly associated with chaparral
[9,63,83].
Canyon live oak is listed as an indicator of dominance or subdominance
in the following community types or plant associations:
Description and classification of the forests of the upper Illinois
River drainage of southwestern Oregon [1]
The tanoak series of the Siskiyou region of southwest Oregon (Part 2) [2]
Natural vegetation of Oregon and Washington [22]
Ecoclass coding for the Pacific Northwest plant associations [30]
Vegetation types of the San Gabriel Mountains [31]
Vegetation types of the San Bernadino Mountains [37]
Vegetation of the San Bernadino Mountains [57]
A vegetation classification system applied to southern California [68]
The vascular plant communities of California [92]
An introduction to the plant communities of the Santa Ana and San
Jacinto Mountains [99]
Plant associates: Common conifer associates of canyon live oak, in
addition to those mentioned above, include Jeffrey pine (P. jeffreyi),
Coulter pine (P. coulteri), ponderosa pine (P. ponderosa), sugar pine
(P. lambertiana), gray pine (P. sabiniana), and redwood (Sequoia
sempervirens) [1,29,49,59,81]. California black oak (Q. kelloggii),
coast live oak (Q. agrifolia), interior live oak (Q. wislizenii), Oregon
white oak (Q. garryana), Pacific madrone, bigleaf maple (Acer
macrophyllum), tanoak, and California bay (Umbellularia californica) are
among the most commonly associated hardwoods [17,29,49,72,100].
Understories are often extremely depauperate on steep, harsh, rocky
sites characterized by pure stands of canyon live oak [49]. The
following species are typical understory associates on less severe
sites: rose (Rosa spp.), Ceanothus spp., creeping snowberrry
(Symphoricarpos mollis), manzanita (Arctostaphylos spp.), gooseberry
(Ribes spp.), serviceberry (Amelanchier spp.), sumac (Rhus spp.),
raspberries (Rubus spp.), dogwood (Cornus spp.), hazel (Corylus cornuta
var. californica), California wild grape (Vitus californica), ninebark
(Physocarpus spp.), mockorange (Philadelphus lewisii), monkey-flower
(Mimulus spp.), prairie sagewort (Aralia californica), common viburnum
(Viburnum ellipiticum), bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum), and buckthorn
(Rhamnus spp.) [8,49,87].
VALUE AND USE
SPECIES: Quercus chrysolepis | Canyon Live Oak
WOOD PRODUCTS VALUE :
Canyon live oak is, by volume, one of the most important California
hardwoods and represents an estimated 2,033 million cubic feet of
growing stock [8,74]. The wood is hard, stiff, and strong [72] and
appears to have some commercial value [97]. It can be used to make
furniture, pallets, and attractive multi-colored paneling or veneer
[74,91], but utilization of canyon live oak wood appears to be
best-suited to small, cottage industry [74].
Canyon live oak is a valuable firewood species in many parts of
California [74], and projections point to increasing demands for
California oak (Quercus spp.) fuelwoods [56].
IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE :
Canyon live oak provides important habitat for many animal species.
Large oaks serve as perching, nesting, resting, or foraging sites for
numerous species of birds and provide shade and cover for both large and
small mammals. Small oaks provide cover and readily available browse.
California oaks are important to shrews, bats, moles, rabbits, ground
squirrels, tree squirrels, woodrats, mice, voles, chipmunks, pocket
gophers, kangaroo rats, pocket mice, foxes, porcupines, bear, beaver,
ringtail, raccoon, skunks, elk, deer, bighorn sheep, and jumping mice.
Canyon live oak woodlands serve as excellent mountain lion habitat
because of the large number of deer frequenting these areas [5].
Browse: In many areas deer browse canyon live oak throughout the year
[83]. However, it is most commonly used in trace amounts or when other
more preferred forage is lacking [46]. Mule deer occasionally feed on
the foliage and twigs of canyon live oak [5,83], but its overall value
is relatively low [97]. The following wildlife species, which occur
within the range of canyon live oak, feed on oak foliage: black-tailed
jackrabbit, beaver, Audubon cottontail, brush rabbit, pinyon mouse,
red-backed vole, Beechy ground squirrel, Sonoma chipmunk, Botta pocket
gopher, cactus mouse, deer mouse, and porcupine [5]. Pocket gophers
frequently eat the cambium of young canyon live oaks [73]. Cattle and
domestic sheep browse canyon live oak when other more preferred forage
is scarce or unavailable [19].
Mast: Canyon live oak is a fairly consistent acorn producer which
enhances its value to wildlife species which rely on mast. Many small
birds and mammals, including jays and woodpeckers, cache acorns from
various California oaks [13]. Acorns of canyon live oak are important
dietary components of many birds including acorn woodpecker, band-tailed
pigeon, scrub jay, Stellers jay, common crow, and magpie [13,27,91,98].
Many mammals such as deer, mice, black-tailed jackrabbit, brush mouse,
western gray squirrel, pocket gophers, California ground squirrel,
dusky-footed woodrat, and harvest mouse also consume canyon live oak
acorns [13,27,91]. Prior to its extinction, the California grizzly fed
extensively on the acorns of live oaks [27]. The following mammals
consume large numbers of acorns from many species of oak: common
opossum, Audubon cottontail, Belding ground squirrel, pinyon mouse,
Beechy ground squirrel, golden-mantled ground squirrel, Townsend
chipmunk, long-eared chipmunk, Sonoma chipmunk, northern flying
squirrel, Botta pocket gopher, California mouse, deer mouse, porcupine,
gray fox, black bear, ringtail, spotted skunk, raccoon, elk, and mule
deer [5]. Birds such as quails, pheasant, turkey, mourning dove,
woodpeckers, jays, mountain chickadee, California thrasher, starling,
western meadowlark, purple finch, American goldfinch, rufous-sided
towhee, and brown towhee also eat acorns of many California oaks [98].
Canyon live oak often provides excellent foraging sites for many small
birds including the Nutt's woodpecker, acorn woodpecker, white-breasted
nuthatch, plain titmouse, and northern oriole [7].
PALATABILITY :
Overall palatability of canyon live oak browse is low. Foliage tends to
be less palatable than that of scrub oak (Quercus dumosa) or interior
live oak (Q. wislizenii) [83]. The tender sprouts of most oaks are much
more palatable than tougher mature foliage.
Acorns of canyon live oak are highly palatable to many birds, insects,
and mammals [73,83].
NUTRITIONAL VALUE :
Oak browse is relatively high in both protein and carbohydrates,
although values vary seasonally. However, tannins present in oak browse
may reduce protein digestibility [56]. Crude protein values of canyon
live oak browse in California averaged 11.6 percent in October but
declined to 5.2 percent by November [83].
Acorns provide a good source of crude fiber, fats, and carbohydrates but
are generally low in protein and ash [56,83]. The nutritional value of
canyon live oak acorns is as follows [3,43]:
water (%) protein (%) fat (%) carbohydrates (%)
9.0 4.13 8.65 63.52
stored acorns 4.51 kcal/g
kcal/stored acorn 5.08
total caloric content of stored acorns 12.400 kcal
COVER VALUE :
Canyon live oak provides cover for many species of birds and mammals.
The specific growth form of this variable tree or shrub largely
determines the type and quality of cover. This oak frequently grows in
dense thickets [17] which can serve as good hiding or nesting cover for
many smaller birds and mammals. Large, single-stemmed canyon live oaks
furnish shade for domestic livestock and cover for large wild ungulates
such as deer [83]. The western screech owl, mountain chickadee,
chestnut-backed chickadee, and other cavity nesters frequently use nests
in older canyon live oaks [75]. Many species of birds use this oak for
perching, resting, or foraging sites [98].
Carnivores, such as the gray fox and bobcat, use California oaks for
thermal or escape cover, and black bear occasionally den at the base of
trees. Raccoons den in hollow oaks, and deer mice, striped skunks, and
gray squirrels use fallen logs for shelter. Oaks are known to provide
cover for the following mammals which occur within the range of canyon
live oak: common opossum, brush rabbit, Beechy ground squirrel, northern
flying squirrel, Botta pocket gopher, Douglas squirrel, California
mouse, deer mouse, gray fox, black bear, ringtail, raccoon, western
red-backed vole, pinyon mouse, wild boar, and mule deer [5].
Usage of canyon live oak cover during one or more seasons is as follows
[5]:
black-tailed jackrabbit light
dusky-footed woodrat moderate
brush mouse light
western gray squirrel moderate
mountain lion light
VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES :
Many species of California oaks (Quercus spp.) are valued for preventing
soil erosion [83]. Canyon live oak grows well on steep slopes which are
prone to erosion and is an excellent soil stabilizer [91].
OTHER USES AND VALUES :
During the era of westward expansion, settlers used the wood of canyon
live oak for many purposes. The wood is particularly hard, hence the
origin of the common names "rock oak" or "maul oak." Its hardness made
it particularly well-suited for axles, tool handles, mauls, wagon
tongues, plow beams, ship frames, and wheels [45,80]. Wedges made from
this oak were used to split redwood into railroad ties [46]. Many
California oaks were used locally for mine timbers or fenceposts [83].
Oak wood was also used to make charcoal [80].
Native Americans traditionally used the acorns of canyon live oak to
make mush or flour which was baked into cakes after the bitter tannins
were removed [45]. Results of modern-day tests indicate that the meal
derived from acorns of canyon live oak makes a nutritious and flavorful
supplement to ordinary wheat flour used in breads and cookies [20].
A number of California oaks have been widely used in landscaping [83]
and canyon live oak was first cultivated in 1877 [66]. It is
particularly well-suited for use in urban plantings. The foliage of
canyon live oak turns an attractive golden color in the fall which
enhances its value as an ornamental [91].
MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
Chemical control: Research indicates that herbicides such as 2,4-D or
trichlopyr (Garlon) can be fairly effective in reducing canyon live oak
[12,91]. The herbicide 2,4-D appears to be somewhat more effective than
2,4,5-T, but repeated applications are generally necessary to achieve
total control. Treated plants often sprout from the base or, less
commonly from the stem, even after they are subsequently burned [25].
Hundreds of sprouts often develop in place of the one or two original
stems. Gratkowski [25] observed that two applications of herbicides
were insufficient to reduce resprouts by 50 percent. However, in a
study conducted in the Klamath Mountains of northern California, Garlon,
when applied to recently cut stem sprouts, killed approximately 90
percent of all sprout clumps [P. McDonald, pers. comm. 1990].
Competition: Stump-sprouts of canyon live oak provide vigorous
competition for conifer seedlings [25,90]. This oak forms a prominent
part of brushfields which develop after timber harvest and adversely
impact conifer growth and establishment [85,87]. Growth rates of
Douglas-fir seedlings can be significantly reduced by the presence of
canyon live oak sprouts which can readily shade the seedlings [89].
Tesch and Hobbs [89] found that after the third growing season, conifer
seedling losses increased as oak sprout growth increased. Longer
rotations are likely where even moderate levels of sprouts provide
competition for newly planted Douglas-fir seedlings. Evidence suggests
that sprout growth of canyon live oak tends to be more vigorous in
clearcuts than in thinned stands [15]. Average numbers of canyon live
oak and height development by timber treatment were documented as
follows [15]:
treatment height (cm) # sprouts/ stump
clearcut 24 41
thinned 14 17
Biomass: Because of its high rate of biomass production and net primary
productivity, canyon live oak may be suitable for periodic harvesting
for energy generation [77]. Maximum biomass production for fuel wood
can be obtained in closed canopy stands [91].
Timber management: Canyon live oak is best managed in even-aged stands
intermixed with conifers, where primary management objectives focus on
sawtimber production. Trees tend to exhibit poor form and excessive
crown development when grown in open stands. The growth form most
suited for use as sawtimber, is attained in closed canopy stands. Stand
management guidelines, as well as detailed information on growth and
yield, have been documented [91].
Wildlife management: The following guidelines have been developed for
maintaining optimum wildlife value of California oak woodlands [5]:
1) maintain 25 to 50 percent canopy cover
2) maintain basal area of 200 to 2,000 ft. sq. per 40 acres
3) maintain a mixture of age classes
4) disperse oaks in 0.5 to 5 acre aggregations
Avian diversity may be enhanced by retaining large patches of oak,
leaving adequate travel corridors between patches, and keeping
structural diversity within the patches [78].
BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
SPECIES: Quercus chrysolepis | Canyon Live Oak
GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS :
Canyon live oak is a rounded, spreading, sclerophyllous evergreen which
grows as a large shrub or small-to-large tree [63,83,97]. Height
commonly ranges from 15 to 70 feet (4.6-21.4 m), with an average maximum
d.b.h. of 2.5 to 5.0 feet (0.8- 1.5 m) [72]. On exceptional sites,
broad-crowned canyon live oaks can reach 100 feet (30.5 m) in height
[45]. The tallest canyon live oak is measured at 106 feet (32 m) at
58.3 inches (148 cm) d.b.h., whereas the record trunk size is 128.5
inches (326 cm) d.b.h. at 72 feet (22 m) [8]. Shrublike growth forms
often have multiple trunks but single-stemmed individuals are also
common [59]. In relatively open stands, the dense canopy may reach
nearly to the ground. However, in closed stands, crowns tend to be of
smaller diameter and take up only the top one-third to one-half of the
tree [72]. Canyon live oak is typically long-lived, and many plants are
believed to grow to at least 250 or 300 years of age [72,97].
Undisturbed bark is smooth, scaly, and pale gray in color [63,72].
Furrows develop in stems greater than 3 inches (7.6 cm) in diameter, and
the outer bark of older trunks develop variable strips [72]. The root
system is typically deep [35], with roots frequently extending to at
least 24 feet (7.3 m) beneath the soil surface [32].
The leathery, variable, oblong leaves of canyon live oak are green and
glossy above, but golden-yellow below [45,72,83]. Leaf margins are
usually smooth or entire but may be spiny-toothed, particularly when
young. Leaves generally persist for at least 3 years [72].
Canyon live oak first flowers between 15 and 20 years of age. Male
flowers are tawny catkins whereas female flowers are sparsely-flowered
spikes. Both male and female flowers are borne on the same tree [91].
The oblong to ovoid acorns are covered with fuzzy golden scales [61,81].
Acorn size is variable, ranging from 1.0 to 3.0 inches (2.5-7.6 cm) in
length [72].
The variety nana is primarily distinguished by its compact shrubby
growth form. Leaves of this variety range from 0.8 to 1.6 inches (2-4
cm) in length [63].
RAUNKIAER LIFE FORM :
Phanerophyte
REGENERATION PROCESSES :
Both seed production and vegetative sprouting are important modes of
regeneration in canyon live oak.
Seed: Variable, ovate-to-ovoid acorns 1.0 to 3.0 inches (2.5-7.6 cm) in
length are borne singly or in clusters [63,72]. Acorns of canyon live
oak are relatively large [73] and can weigh up to 0.7 ounces (19 g) [3].
Cleaned acorns average approximately 150 per pound (330/kg) [66]. Seeds
mature after two growing seasons and drop from the trees during the late
summer or fall [13,41]. Prolific seed crops are produced at somewhat
irregular intervals [71]. However, canyon live oak was found to have
the highest mean annual production of five California oaks sampled.
Approximately 19 percent of the individual canyon live oaks produced no
acorns during the course of this study, whereas 43 percent produced
acorns in 4 or more years. Good crops were consistently produced by
this species during the 7-year period [13]. Some trees apparently
produce acorns every year [91].
Acorn production by weight is often high, and yields of from 1,960 to
6,000 pounds per acre (2,195-5,200 kg/ha) have been reported [3,98].
Trees in dense stands or clumps generally produce fewer acorns than
large, single trees. A single open-grown tree can produce up to 400
pounds (182 kg) of acorns annually [91].
Seed dispersal: Acorns are readily dispersed by gravity, and by many
small birds and mammals. Squirrels cache acorns and are effective
dispersal agents even though they consume many seeds [5]. The acorn
woodpecker caches seed in trees, whereas the scrub jay hides acorns in
the ground for later use [13]. Although most of these acorns are eaten,
a few subsequently germinate.
Germination: Germination of canyon live oak tends to be slow. Matsuda
and McBride [52] observed 50 germination within a 35 day period under
favorable laboratory conditons. Development may be particularly delayed
at higher elevations. In California, acorns germinate from November
through January at lower elevations, but germination may not occur at
higher elevations until January or February [51,52]. Evidence suggests
that cold stratification can enhance germination of canyon live oak
[16], although exposure to cold is not necessary for good germination
[51]. Germination appears to be inhibited by darkness [41]. Viable
acorns can be harvested 1 1/2 to 2 months prior to normal ripening, but
germinate only if the tip of the pericarp is removed before planting
[16]. Results of germination tests are as follows [66]:
germination test temperature F duration germination
(cold strat. days) day night (days) capacity (%)
0 to 60 86 68 56 to 60 56 to 75
Seedling establishment: Acorns are vulnerable to bird, mammal, and
insect predators. Animals may consume large numbers of acorns, with
utilization approaching 100 percent where deer, pigs, or bear occur [5].
High acorn mortality has also been attributed to mold or rot. Acorn
mortality has ranged from 3 to 77 percent under carefully controlled
laboratory experiments [51], suggesting that high mortality does occur
under natural conditions. In some areas, competition from grasses can
completely eliminate seedling establishment except in particularly moist
years. Seedling establishment is typically best beneath a forest
canopy. Where good establishment occurs, seedlings may be dense and
evenly distributed. Large numbers of canyon live oak seedlings
accumulate in some stands [91]. Growth of seedlings is typically slow
[55].
Vegetative regeneration: Canyon live oak typically sprouts vigorously
from the stump or rootcrown after fire or mechanical disturbance
[49,72,89,97]. The subsurface rootcrown often sprouts prolifically when
the canopy is only "marginally defoliated" [59,72], and even seedlings
are capable of sprouting after disturbance [49]. Young, vigorous plants
generally sprout readily, although older, weakened trees may fail to
sprout, or may produce only a few stool sprouts. Sprout growth can be
rapid. Sprouts may reach 1 to 3 feet (0.5 to 1 m) during the first year
of growth [91]. Four year old sprouts 3 to 6 feet (1-2 m) in height
have been observed [60]. The number of sprouts per clump is reduced as
resources are concentrated on the most vigorous individuals [91].
SITE CHARACTERISTICS :
Canyon live oak occurs across a wide range of climatic and topoedaphic
conditions [28,49]. It grows on steep, rocky, often exposed slopes or
ridges, in narrow canyon bottoms, sheltered coves, rock crevices, dry
washes, and arroyos [19,28,71,73,93]. Canyon live oak often occurs in
pure stands on steep slopes or bouldery canyon bottoms [49], and in
continuous bands above chaparral [60]. It occasionally forms dense
thickets approximately 10 to 16 feet (3-5 m) in height [17]. Canyon
live oak is particularly common on slopes of 55 percent or more [8].
Soils: California oaks grow well on a variety of well-drained soils
including fine-grained, cobbly, or gravelly sandy loams, or poorly
developed skeletal soils. Soil pH commonly ranges from 5.6 to 7.5
with depths of 20 to 40 inches (50-100 cm) [73]. Canyon live oak occurs
on fine, gravelly, rocky, or gravelly-loamy soil, and sand [83,93], but
best growth occurs on rich, moist soils of canyon bottoms [72]. Parent
materials vary but include diorite and gabbro in the Siskiyou Mountains
[100] and serpentine in parts of the Santa Ana Mountains of California
[99]. In northwestern California, canyon live oak grows on soils
derived from serpentine, peridotite, and sedimentary, meta-sedimentary,
and granitic rock types [91]. It generally grows well on poorly
developed soils derived from granitic, metamorphic, or sedimentary
parent materials [49].
Climate: Canyon live oak grows in coastal areas that receive more than
110 inches (2,780 mm) of annual precipitation, as well as in interior
mountains that receive less than 6 inches (150 mm) of precipitation
annually. Mean summer temperatures range from 68 to 74 degrees F (20-23
deg C) in the north, to 70 to 77 degrees F (21-25 deg C) in the south.
Winter temperatures average 37 to 41 degrees F (3-5 deg C) in the north,
and 41 to 45 degrees F (5-7 deg C) in the south. Average growing season
length ranges from 160 to 230 days [91].
Elevation: Canyon live oak grows from near sea level to 9,000 feet
(2,740 m) [49]. Generalized elevational ranges are as follows
[10,61,72,93,91]:
from 5,300 to 8,500 feet (1,615-2,591 m) in AZ
1,000 to 5,000 feet (300-1,500 m) in northern Sierra, CA
2,500 to 9,000 feet (750-2,740 m) in southern Sierra, CA
4,100 to 6,300 feet (1,250-1,920 m) in eastern Mohave, CA
3,280 to 6,888 feet (1,000-2,100 m) in n. Baja CA, Mexico
1,600 to 5,000 feet (500-1,500 m) in southwestern OR
SUCCESSIONAL STATUS :
Canyon live oak is an important component of many early seral
communities, primarily because of rapid, prolific sprouting. In the
northern portion of its range, canyon live oak is prominent in early
seral community on good sites, but it is eventually outcompeted and
disappears from climax stands [91]. In many areas, canyon live oak is a
primary colonizer on rocky crevices and talus piles [17,81]. Once
established on these harsh sites, it generally persists for long periods
of time [17].
This oak often dominates brushfields created by burning or logging, and
although these brushfields develop soon after disturbance, they may
persist for decades. Relatively long-lived brushfields made up of
vigorous, shade-tolerant sprouters such as canyon live oak can slow the
rate of forest succession by interfering with conifer regeneration [22].
Canyon live oak is long-lived, and shade-tolerant when young [72,97].
These attributes enhance its importance in a variety of later seral or
climax communities. It commonly persists as a subordinate species in
climax stands on dry, open forested sites. Canyon live oak occurs as a
climax dominant on steep, rock-walled canyons [91].
In bigcone Douglas-fir-canyon live oak forests of southern California,
disturbances such as fire can cause some internal shifts in species
composition, but the community itself changes little [49]. Canyon live
oak, although present in seral stages, appears to persist in climax or
even postclimax stands. Bigcone Douglas-fir forests may be replaced by
canyon live oak woodlands or live oak chaparral under a regime of
frequent fires. A period of at least 40 to 70 years may be required for
bigcone Douglas-fir to grow beyond 16 to 30 foot (5-9 m) tall stands of
canyon live oak. It may take "many centuries" for bigcone Douglas-fir
to again assume dominance after a relatively intense fire. In the
absence of fire, bigcone Douglas-fir slowly grows above canyon live oak
and eventually replaces it [55].
Canyon live oak is generally regarded as an important species in many
fire-maintained disclimax chaparral communities of southern California
[17]. Actual postfire stand turnover is often minimal because of the
prolific sprouting ability of this plant. Oak typically grows from 3 to
10 feet (1-3 m) within 15 to 30 years after fire or other disturbance,
and dense closed canopy stands 15 to 30 feet (5-10 m) in height develop
within approximately 30 years [59]. Open canyon live oak woodlands are
converted into live oak chaparral if burned at frequent intervals
[37,49]. Although the growth form becomes much more shrublike, the
species itself persists, and the community reverts to an oak woodland if
it is subsequently protected from fire [49]. Tree-sized canyon live
oaks are generally present only in areas which have not burned within 50
years [58].
SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT :
Canyon live oak flowers from April to June [64,93]. Acorns mature after
two seasons, with ripening time largely dependent on elevation and
growing conditions [71,72]. Acorns generally ripen after mid-August,
although some annual variation has been observed [71]. Immature acorns
which have been damaged by wind, hail, rain, or insects begin to fall
from the tree as early as May [56]. Ripe, undamaged acorns of canyon
live oak are dispersed during the fall [41]. Individual leaves of this
evergreen frequently remain on the tree for at least 3 years [72], with
leaf fall generally occurring in early summer [59].
FIRE ECOLOGY
SPECIES: Quercus chrysolepis | Canyon Live Oak
FIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS :
Canyon live oak typically sprouts prolifically from the stump or
rootcrown after the trunk or crown is marginally damaged by fire [70].
Because of its proclivity for resprouting, stand turnover is generally
minimal [59]. Frequent fires tend to promote multistemmed shrublike
growth forms. Open woodlands dominated by canyon live oak are
transformed into live oak chaparral by repeated fires, but once
protected from fire, chaparral reverts to woodlands as the oaks grow
tall enough during fire-free intervals to shade-out competing vegetation
and intra-clump stem density declines [49, P. McDonald pers. comm. 1990].
Where canyon live oak occurs in fireprone chaparral, its growth form is
typically shrublike [59]. Stems of canyon live oak are sensitive to
fire, and larger treelike individuals are generally found only in areas
which have not burned within 50 years or more [57]. Many sites dominated
by this oak are xeric and rocky, with little understory vegetation, and
probably carry fire only under unusual circumstances [57,73]. Disjunct
mesic areas in canyon bottoms or open higher elevation stands which burn
at locally reduced fire intensity are generally somewhat protected from
fire [59].
The presence of evergreen leaves, the ability to sprout prolifically,
and the ability to assume a shrublike growth form enhance the postfire
survival of canyon live oak. The shrublike growth forms of other live
oaks reach maturity sooner than treelike growth forms of the same
species [54]. Evergreen leaves permit greater allocation of energy to
regeneration than to vegetative growth and also help to conserve
potentially scarce nutrients [49]. Canyon live oak can readily
reestablish a site through prolific sprouting, but establishment through
seed can also supplement sprout production during years with adequate
precipitation [49]. The ability to sprout generally reduces the
importance of a seed reservoir in chaparral plants and minimizes the
necessity of long-lived seed for postfire regeneration [62]. It should
be noted that fire plays no role in stimulating the germination of the
heat-sensitive canyon live oak acorns [40,42]. The long-lived canyon live
oak can persist with or without fire.
POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY :
Tree with adventitious-bud root crown/soboliferous species root sucker
Initial-offsite colonizer (off-site, initial community)
FIRE EFFECTS
SPECIES: Quercus chrysolepis | Canyon Live Oak
IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT :
Aboveground foliage of canyon live oak is sensitive to fire, and this
plant is generally top-killed by fires of even relatively low intensity
[26]. Light ground fires can seriously damage or girdle this oak or
produce fatal cambium injuries to the crown and trunk [58,59,73]. The
dead flaky outer bark is extremely flammable and can carry fire several
feet up the trunk [73]. The bark is relatively thin and offers little
protection when compared with other species of oak [58]. The trunk
appears to be sensitive to heat damage [70], which often extends up the
trunk, far above any obvious signs of charring [72].
The total effect of fire on oaks varies according to fire intensity and
severity, fire behavior, season of burn, and the size of the plants
[70,72]. Younger plants and those with smaller stems and lower crown
heights tend to be most vulnerable [70,72]. Trees with crown-to-ground
distances of 15 to 30 feet (5-10 m) or more tend to be most resistant to
damage [60]. Larger trees have relatively little dead fuel in the crown
since leaf fall occurs in early summer prior to the fire season. The
thicker bark of larger oaks provides some additional protection as does
the greater living biomass which decreases overall flammability [60].
Trunks of oaks are, in general, more seriously damaged by slower moving,
lower intensity fires than those of higher intensity, but shorter
duration. However, because of the presence of heat-sensitive leaves,
crowns tend to be more severely injured by fires of higher intensity,
but shorter duration. Fires are generally more damaging as the growing
season proceeds, with winter fires the least damaging. The bark is
typically less severely damaged when burned at lower ambient air
temperatures. Oaks less than 6 inches (15.2 cm) d.b.h. are generally
top-killed by even low intensity fires [72].
Stem and bark: Young oak stems which have been damaged by heat
generally change from gray to reddish-gray in color. The subsurface
layer of the bark changes from green to tan or brown, and the inner bark
appears yellow instead of the normal white or pink. Damaged inner bark
often has a characteristic fermented aroma. The cambium can be
considered dead if the bark has been consumed, or if it appears to be
cracked and separated from the wood. Trunk char may be categorized as
follows [72]:
1) light - spotty char or scorch, scattered
pitting of the bark
2) medium - continuous charring, pronounced reductions areas
of minor bark reduction
3) heavy - pronounced reductions in bark thickness, in
some areas the bark is burned through
exposing the wood beneath
Basal scars produced by scorching can admit rot and disease and
frequently serve as a point of ignition in subsequent fires [70].
Crown: Crown damage is variable in oaks and the degree of damage can
differ even within an individual crown]. Damage may range from
essentially none to total removal of the foliage. Crown survival of
larger trees is somewhat variable. Trees of 12 inches (30.5 cm) d.b.h.
have survived with wounds up to 20 feet (6.1m) in height [70].
Damage within a stand may be serious and widespread. Up to 78 percent
of the stands in a given area may be defoliated by char or scorch in
bigcone Douglas-fir-canyon live oak forests of California [59].
Fire-related injuries can increase oak's susceptibility to attack by
insects, fungus, or windthrow [70]. Belowground portions of canyon live
oak generally survive even when the plant is top-killed by fire
[58,59,67,68]. However, plants may be killed if burned at too frequent
intervals [73]. Acorns of canyon live oak are sensitive to heat and are
generally destroyed by fire [24].
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT :
The full effect of fire on oaks may not become obvious for some time.
It may be necessary to wait for at least one growing season, and
preferably three, before survival can be accurately determined.
Undamaged leaf crowns of seemingly girdled canyon live oaks may appear
alive for as long as 8 years after fire [72]. Plumb [70] noted that
when dense pure stands of canyon live oak 6 to 12 inches (15-31 cm)
d.b.h. were burned, initial damage appeared to be restricted to the
bottom 1 to 5 feet (0.3-1.5 m) of the trunk. All trees 3 inches (7.6
cm) d.b.h. or smaller were top-killed within 18 months, but at least 55
percent of the larger trees appeared to be alive, although presumably
girdled at the base. However, crowns of 50 percent of the remaining
trees turned brown and died by the 36th month after fire, and most of
the rest were expected to die within the next few years [70].
Various methods have been developed for assessing damage to oaks
including chemical, electrical, and visual techniques [70,72].
PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE :
Canyon live oak generally sprouts prolifically after fire [59,88,89].
Even seedlings are often capable of sprouting after disturbance [49],
and moderate to dense regrowth of sprouts is typical after fire [72].
Canyon live oak sprouts vigorously from the subsurface rootcrown even
when the upper canopy is only partially defoliated by burning or
scorching [60,70]. The rootcrown itself has been described as a "basal
woody mass" but does not appear to be lignotuberous [40,60]. Postfire
stump-sprouting occurs where portions of the stump remains intact
[37,49,67]. Under certain circumstances, some larger trees crown sprout
if only "marginally singed" [59]. However, this appears to be somewhat
unusual, with resprouting typically occurring from the base and not the
crown [57,58,68]. On occasion, plants may sprout from both the base and
the crown [P. McDonald pers. comm. 1990].
Postfire recovery: Where sprouting occurs, recovery of canyon live oak
is generally rapid. In some areas, sprouts are capable of reaching 3 to
6 feet (1-2 m) in height within only four 4 after fire. On many sites
following lighter fires, canyon live oak frequently forms dense,
virtually impenetrable stands 3 to 10 feet (1-3 m) in height within 15
to 30 years after fire [59,60]. After 30 years, canyon live oak
generally grows in multistemmed clumps which form a closed canopy 15 to
30 feet (5-10 m) high [60]. Frequent fires favor shrublike growth forms
of canyon live oak which often dominates other species following several
fires at fairly close intervals [11]. Open woodlands of canyon live oak
are temporarily replaced by live oak chaparral after repeated burning
[57]. However, protection from fire favors the reestablishment of oak
woodlands as oak sprouts ultimately grow tall enough to outcompete other
associated plants [49].
Acorns: In certain areas, some postfire establishment can occur through
the germination of canyon live oak acorns [88]. However, in most
locations, regeneration through seed is probably important only in years
of favorable precipitation [77]. Conditions created by fire are not
generally conducive to the germination of acorns, and most oaks seldom
establish through seed after fire [40,42]. The current year's acorns
are generally killed by fire and even acorns stored in the soil are
vulnerable to heat [41]. Animals may carry some viable seeds to the
site from adjacent unburned stands, and some on-site seeds, more deeply
buried in rodent caches, can germinate and contribute to postfire
reestablishment.
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE :
Canyon live oak sprouts most prolifically on sites with deeper soils and
with higher soil moisture [38,69]. Sprouting varies according to
elevation as follows [69]:
elevation % sprouting
2,100 ft 73
4,100 ft 60
total 66
FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
Fuels and flammability: Although the heat content of the outer bark of
canyon live oak is relatively low when compared with other California
oaks (Quercus spp.), its low density and flakiness contribute to heat
buildup around the trunk [72]. The heat content of canyon live oak has
been calculated as follows [70]:
density heat content moisture content
(lb/ft 3) (lb/ft 3) (%)
flaky outer bark 41 7175 11
outer bark 48 7525 --
inner bark 43 6575 65
wood 45 7875 60
Prescribed fire: Plumb [70] reports that "the use of prescribed fire in
the management of canyon live oak does not appear to be promising" where
primary goals include maintenance of oak woodlands. Trees are
sufficiently sensitive to trunk girdling that even ground fires can kill
the trunk surface. Prescribed fire can be used in stands of larger
trees where fuel loading is low, or where trunks are protected from the
direct effects of heat [70]. Repeated fires at frequent intervals can
maintain shrubby canyon live oak chaparral.
Postfire harvest: A correct determination of the degree of damage is
essential before appropriate harvest recommendations can be made. Plumb
and Gomez [72] suggest waiting at least one growing season, and if
possible three, before cutting larger, more valuable trees which have
uncertain potential for crown survival. The following postfire harvest
guidelines have been developed for canyon live oak [70]:
tree size and degree of trunk char -
light medium heavy
< 6 inches dbh cut cut cut
6-12 inches dbh leave cut cut
> 12 inches dbh leave cut cut
Harvesting may be recommended if 75 percent or more of the trunk is
girdled on trees less than 6 inches (15.2 cm) d.b.h. or if more than 50
percent is girdled on oaks larger than 6 inches (15.2 cm) d.b.h. [70].
Wildlife: Fire in California oak woodlands can create favorable,
although transitory, habitat for birds such as the flicker and hairy
woodpecker which feed on insects present in the branches of fire-killed
trees [14].
Bigcone Douglas-fir communities: Bigcone Douglas-fir forests with a
canyon live oak understory are susceptible to frequent ground fires
[62]. In certain areas, canyon live oak grows in tree-sized form with
bigcone Douglas-fir. Here, the relatively nonflammable oak serves as a
buffer against fire [58]. Where burned at frequent intervals, bigcone
Douglas-fir forests may be replaced by a canyon live oak woodland or
chaparral dominated by multi-stemmed clumps of oak [55]. Conversion of
treelike canyon live oak to a shrublike growth form results in greater
cumulative damage to the bigcone Douglas-fir overstory [58]. Minnich
[13] notes that the "success of [bigcone Douglas-fir] seems dependent on
tree-sized canyon live oak escaping fire."
Regeneration of bigcone Douglas-fir appears best in shade provided by a
canyon live oak canopy [58,59]. However, with time, continuous shade
proves detrimental to the development of regenerating conifers [55].
The growth of bigcone Douglas-fir is often suppressed under the shade of
the canyon live oak canopy until pole-sized conifers grow above the oaks
[60]. Bigcone Douglas-fir may not regain dominance for several hundred
years [55] [see Successional Status].
Coulter pine stands: Where canyon live oak occurs with Coulter pine,
the oak contributes to higher fuel levels which produce fires necessary
for the regeneration of this conifer [60].
California white oak savanna: Certain higher elevation valley oak (Q.
lobata) savannas of California are currently being invaded by such
species as canyon live oak. Fire suppression is frequently cited as a
probable cause of this vegetative change. Frequent fires would
presumably kill many of the young canyon live oak sprouts and maintain a
California white oak savanna [27].
FIRE CASE STUDIES
SPECIES: Quercus chrysolepis | Canyon Live Oak
CASE NAME :
Marble - Cone
SEASON/SEVERITY CLASSIFICATION :
August 1977/severe.
STUDY LOCATION :
The study site is located in the Ventana Wilderness Area of California
and includes the north slope of Junipero Serra Peak. Two primary areas
were considered: 1) Summit Forest, and 2) Slope Forest.
PREFIRE VEGETATIVE COMMUNITY :
Montane forest were dominated by sugar pine (Pinus lambertiana). These
forests were surrounded by shrubby mixed hardwoods and chaparral. On
steep slopes Coulter pine (P. coulteri), canyon live oak (Quercus
chrysolepis), and eastwood manzanita (Arctostaphylos glandulosa) were
important vegetative components on some plots. Important herbs and
subshrubs included rockcress (Arabis breweri), Indian paintbrush
(Castilleja foliosa), lipfern (Cheilanthes covillei), bedstraw (Galium
angustifolium), bedstraw (G. clementis), hawkweed (Hieracium argutum
var. parishii), deervetch (Lotus argophyllus var. fremontii), Abrams
lupine (Lupinus abramsii), lupine (L. hirsutissimus), red beardstongue
(Penstemon corymbosus), western swordfern (Polystichum munitum), and
crested stipa (Stipa coronata). Density of canyon live oak was
estimated at 73 percent, with a basal areas of approximately 30 percent.
On gentler slopes within the summit forest, sugar pine, Coulter pine and
canyon live oak were dominant, with scattered eastwood manzanita.
Common herbs included dusky onion (Allium campanulatum), fleabane
(Erigeron petrophyllus), biscuitroot (Lomatium macrophyllum), oceanspray
(Holodiscus microphyllus), needlegrass (Stipa spp.), bedstraw (Galium
clementis), Micranth alumroot (Heuchera micrantha var. pacifica), and
western swordfern. Basal area of canyon live oak was 6 percent, with an
estimated density of 23 percent.
TARGET SPECIES PHENOLOGICAL STATE :
not reported.
SITE DESCRIPTION :
Slope Forest -
slope - average 57 percent
preburn vegetation - sparse
topography - broken and steep
elevation - average 5,215 feet (1,590 m)
Summit Forest -
slope - moderate, average 42 percent
preburn vegetation - no more than 25 percent cover
elevation - average 5,576 feet (1,700 m)
FIRE DESCRIPTION :
Fire crowned in some parts of the Summit Forest. Fire changed from a
crown-type fire to a surface fire below 5,412 feet (1,650 m). Here the
burn was somewhat patchy. Portions of the canyon bottom characterized
by steep, rocky slopes or mineral soil remained unburned.
FIRE EFFECTS ON TARGET SPECIES :
Nearly all canyon live oaks in burned areas were killed. However,
burned stems sprouted vigorously and on some slope plots acorns also
germinated. Prefire and postfire constancy and cover values are as
follows:
constancy - (%) /modal cover - abundance values
Slope Forest Summit Forest
preburn postburn preburn postburn
from sprouts - 20 / + 100 / 1 60 / + 100 / +
from seed - -- 100 / 1 -- 100 / 1
FIRE MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS :
Canyon live oak sprouted prolifically after fire. In some areas
seedlings were also present. Response suggests a relatively rapid
recovery after fire.
FIRE CASE STUDIES
SPECIES: Quercus chrysolepis | Canyon Live Oak
CASE NAME :
Village Fire, California
SEASON/SEVERITY CLASSIFICATION :
November, 1975/not reported
STUDY LOCATION :
The study site is located in the Angeles National Forest of California.
PREFIRE VEGETATIVE COMMUNITY :
Preburn vegetation consisted of an almost pure stand of canyon live oak
(Quervcus chrysolepis). Most trees ranged between 6 and 12 inches
(15-31 cm) d.b.h.
TARGET SPECIES PHENOLOGICAL STATE :
presumably dormant.
SITE DESCRIPTION :
not reported.
FIRE DESCRIPTION :
not reported.
FIRE EFFECTS ON TARGET SPECIES :
The basal 1 to 5 feet (0.8-1.5 m) of most trunks were charred and
one-third to two-thirds of the leaves in the crown were killed. Many
leaves close to the ground were killed by heat but were not actually
consumed. The bark of some trees was burned through exposing the wood
beneath. Larger trees often exhibited crown kill over a relatively long
period of time. Approximately 55 percent of the larger trees were still
alive at the end of 18 months. During the next 18 months, 50 percent of
the trees with "live crowns" turned brown. Many more were expected to
die later. Results were as follows:
condition of trees 1-1/2 years after basal trunk damage -
tree number apparently basal basal sprouting live crown
diameter of dead sprouting + live only
(dbh in.) trees (%) only (%) crown (%) (%)
0-3 10 10 90 0 0
3-6 59 3 73 22 2
6-12 97 1 25 70 4
decline over a 3 year period in % of living crown -
tree diameter # of trees % alive after % alive after
(dbh in.) 18 months 36 months
0-3 10 0 0
3-6 59 24 15
6-12 97 74 46
FIRE MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS :
Aboveground vegetation of canyon live oak is sensitive to fire. Even
low intensity ground fires can create high heat intensity on the surface
of the trunk due to the flammability and heat conductivity of the flaky,
outer bark. A correct determination of fire damage is important in
assessing postfire survival potential of canyon live oak stems (See
Discussion and Qualification of Fire Effect). Crowns and trunks of
larger canyon live oak with only light to medium char sometimes survive.
However, several growing seasons may be necessary to determine the
actual degree of damage. Postfire harvest of smaller trees, or those
suffering greater trunk char, is generally recommended since survival of
stems is unlikely.
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Index
Related categories for Species: Quercus chrysolepis
| Canyon Live Oak
|
 |
