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Wildlife, Animals, and Plants
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Introductory
SPECIES: Quercus virginiana | Live Oak
ABBREVIATION :
QUEVIR
SYNONYMS :
Quercus germinata Small
Quercus fusiformis Small
Quercus maritima (Michx.) Willd.
Quercus virginiana var. maritima (Michx.) Sarg.
Quercus oleoides Schlecht. & Cham. var. quaterna
SCS PLANT CODE :
QUVI
COMMON NAMES :
live oak
Virginia live oak
Southern live oak
sand live oak
bay live oak
Texas live oak
West Texas live oak
scrub live oak
plateau oak
plateau live oak
escarpment live oak
encino
TAXONOMY :
The currently accepted scientific name of live oak is Quercus virginiana
Mill. [21,31]. There is no consensus concerning the taxonomic status of
live oak varieties. Some authorities recognize distinct species
[7,11,18,36,55], while others recognize varieties [21,31,48]. This
report recognizes the following three varieties:
Q. v. var. virginiana
Q. v. var. fusiformis (Small) Sarg. = Texas live oak
Q. v. var. geminata (Small) Sarg. = sand live oak
Dwarf live oak (Q. minima) and Cuban oak (Q. oleoides var. sagreana)
were once considered live oak varieties but are now considered distinct
species [31]. A dwarf oak grows in Texas and it is undetermined whether
this is a dwarf or juvenile form of the Texas live oak variety, or if it
is a hybrid between Texas live oak and dwarf live oak [41].
Live oak hybridizes with dwarf live oak, swamp white oak (Q. bicolor),
Durand oak (Q. durandi), overcup oak (Q. lyrata), bur oak (Q.
macrocarpa), and post oak (Q. stellata) [31].
LIFE FORM :
Tree, Shrub
FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS :
No special status
OTHER STATUS :
NO-ENTRY
COMPILED BY AND DATE :
Jennifer H. Carey, June 1992
LAST REVISED BY AND DATE :
NO-ENTRY
AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION :
Carey, Jennifer, H. 1992. Quercus virginiana. In: Remainder of Citation
DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
SPECIES: Quercus virginiana | Live Oak
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION :
The typical live oak variety occurs on the lower Coastal Plain of the
southeastern United States from southeast Virginia to Florida, including
the Florida Keys, and west to southeast Texas [21,31]. Pure forms are
found east of the Brazos River in Texas; a transitional zone, where
morphological traits of typical and Texas live oak show clinal
variation, occurs west of the Brazos [41]. Texas live oak occurs
primarily on the Edwards Plateau and the Rio Grande Plain in Texas. It
is found as far west as Terrell County, Texas, in drainages of the Pecos
River. Scattered populations occur in southwestern Oklahoma and in the
mountains of northeastern Mexico [21,41]. Sand live oak occurs from
North Carolina to Florida and west to Mississippi [4].
ECOSYSTEMS :
FRES12 Longleaf - slash pine
FRES13 Loblolly - shortleaf pine
FRES14 Oak - pine
FRES15 Oak - hickory
FRES16 Oak - gum - cypress
FRES31 Shinnery
FRES32 Texas savanna
STATES :
AL AR FL GA KY LA MS OK NC SC
TN TX VA MEXICO
ADMINISTRATIVE UNITS :
AMIS BICY BITH CAHA CALO CUIS
EVER FOCA GUIS JELA NATR PAIS
BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS :
13 Rocky Mountain Piedmont
14 Great Plains
KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS :
K060 Mesquite savanna
K061 Mesquite - acacia savanna
K062 Mesquite - live oak savanna
K071 Shinnery
K085 Mesquite - buffalograss
K086 Juniper - oak savanna
K090 Live oak - sea oats
K111 Oak - hickory - pine forest
K112 Southern mixed forest
K115 Sand pine scrub
SAF COVER TYPES :
66 Ashe juniper - redberry juniper
67 Mohrs oak
68 Mesquite
69 Sand pine
71 Longleaf - scrub oak
73 Southern redcedar
74 Cabbage palmetto
84 Slash pine
89 Live oak
111 South Florida slash pine
SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES :
NO-ENTRY
HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES :
Live oak is a common dominant in maritime forests and on hammocks
bordering coastal and inland marshes.
VALUE AND USE
SPECIES: Quercus virginiana | Live Oak
WOOD PRODUCTS VALUE :
Live oak wood is heavy and strong but is little used commercially [21].
IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE :
Live oak acorns are an important food source for many birds and mammals,
including northern bobwhite, Florida scrub jay, mallard, sapsuckers,
wild turkey, black bear, squirrels, and white-tailed deer. Because of
fall germination, the acorns are not available for very long [40]. Live
oaks in Texas coastal prairies provide shade for wildlife and livestock
[43].
PALATABILITY :
Live oak acorns are a sweet and desirable food [21,20], but their
palatability diminishes after germination [40]. New root sprouts are
also palatable [39].
NUTRITIONAL VALUE :
Live oak browse is low in digestible energy [6]. Actively growing
sprouts are nutritious, with 13 to 17 percent crude protein [39].
The palatability, digestibility, and seasonal abundance of acorns make
them an important food source. Live oak acorns are low in protein, but
high in fat and fiber. The following table gives nutritional data in
dry weight percent for live oak acorns [38,40]:
Location protein fat N-free fiber calcium phosphorus
extract
TX 5.61 1.84 44.00 16.52 0.86 0.16
TX 5.48 8.29 77.73 2.28
MS 5.22 8.59 67.95 16.71 0.18 0.08
AR 5.80 6.10 71.70 14.60 0.13 0.09
COVER VALUE :
Live oak provides cover for birds and mammals. The threatened Florida
scrub jay nests in live oak [54]. In southern Texas, live oak provides
nest sites for many species, including the hooded oriole, ferruginous
pygmy-owl, red-billed pigeon, northern beardless tyrannulet, and Couch's
kingbird. The tropical parula requires the rounded clumps of ball moss
(Tillandsia recurvata) found in live oak for nest construction [14].
VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES :
Live oak is used to revegetate coal mine spoils in Texas. Live oak
inoculated with either endo- or ectomycorrhizae have better growth and
development on these lignite overburden sites [9].
Live oak is used for reforestation of the southernmost portions of the
lower Mississippi Valley, which were originally cleared for agriculture
[3].
OTHER USES AND VALUES :
Live oak is used for shade and as an ornamental [21]. Live oak is
considered "one of the noblest trees in the world and virtually an
emblem of the Old South" [19].
In the past, live oak was used for ship building [21]. Native Americans
produced an oil comparable to olive oil from live oak acorns [20]. It
is believed that Native Americans used live oaks as trail markers by
staking saplings down, causing them to grow at extreme angles [19].
MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
Dense stands of live oak reduce forage production for livestock. Live
oak is extremely hard to kill because it sprouts vigorously from the
root collar and roots [20]. However, the soil-applied herbicide,
tebuthiuron, effectively controls live oak. In a study in Texas,
herbicide treatment of live oak increased grass yields in the first
posttreatment growing season and increased forb yields in 3 to 4 years
posttreatment [15].
On the Edwards Plateau in Texas, live oak was reduced by 75 percent
after mechanical brush control, using the double chain method. The oaks
sprouted, but white-tailed deer browsing kept sprouts at ground level
for the first posttreatment year [39].
Live oak decline, a wilt disease caused by Ceratocystis fagacearum, is a
serious threat to Texas live oak and possibly live oak varieties in
other states as well [21]. Fungicides are not effective because the
fungus colonizes deep in the sapwood. Live oak firewood should not be
transported into wilt-free areas because the fungus survives in dead
wood for up to 1 year [30].
Leaf blister, caused by Taphrina caerulescens, defoliates trees.
Heartwood decay (Polyporus dryophylus) is prevalent in live oak, but the
sapwood is so strong that infected trees usually remain standing [21].
Live oak is a favorite of gall wasps, but the galls do not appear to
affect the health of the trees [19].
Mistletoe (Phoradendron spp.), ball moss, and spanish moss (Tillandsia
usneoides) live in live oak. Spanish moss accumulates in such
abundance, that it can shade out the lower parts on the crown and
interfere with photosynthesis. Spanish moss can be controlled by
spraying [19].
A borer, Archodontes melanopus, attacks roots of young live oak [19].
Live oak is extremely susceptible to damage by freezing temperatures,
but it withstands hurricanes [21].
BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
SPECIES: Quercus virginiana | Live Oak
GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS :
Live oak is a shrubby to large and spreading, long-lived, nearly
evergreen tree. It drops its leaves and grows new leaves within several
weeks in the spring. Open-grown trees average 50 feet (15 m) in height
and 36 to 48 inches (91-122 cm) in d.b.h., but can have trunks up to 79
inches (200 cm) in d.b.h. The rounded crowns may span 150 feet (46 m)
or more [20,21]. Lower limbs sweep to the ground and then curve upward.
Live oak growing at an angle of up to 45 degrees can still support a
great mass of limbs. The bark is furrowed longitudinally, and the small
acorns are long and tapered. Trees usually have rounded clumps of ball
moss or thick drapings of spanish moss [19,21].
The sand live oak and Texas live oak varieties frequently have a shrubby
stature which is thought to be soil and moisture dependent. Both
varieties become trees in good site conditions [48]. Sand live oak can
grow to 33 feet (10 m) in height and 24 inches (60 cm) in d.b.h. Its
oblong leaves curl under at the margin and the lower surface is densely
whitish-pubescent [11].
RAUNKIAER LIFE FORM :
Phanerophyte (mesophanerophyte)
Phanerophyte (microphanerophyte)
Phanerophyte (nanophanerophyte)
REGENERATION PROCESSES :
Live oak is monecious. Acorns are produced annually and often in great
abundance [21]. Acorns can be produced on root sprouts only 1 foot (0.3
m) high [45]. Dissemination is by gravity and, to a lesser extent,
animals [21].
Germination is hypogeal and occurs shortly after seedfall if the site is
moist and warm. Few acorns overwinter since they are eaten by weevils
and animals [21]. Live oak is fast growing if well-watered and soil
conditions are good. Seedlings can grow 4 feet (1.2 m) in the first
year, but this rate tapers off as size increases [19,45]. Under ideal
conditions, a live oak can attain a d.b.h. of 54 inches (137 cm) in less
than 70 years [20].
Live oak sprouts from the root collar and roots, and forms dense clones
up to 66 feet (20 m) in diameter [8]. The sand live oak clones are
called groves, and clusters of live oak in the Texas prairie are called
mottes.
SITE CHARACTERISTICS :
Live oak grows in moist to dry sites. It withstands occasional floods,
but not constant saturation [47]. It is resistant to salt spray and
high soil salinity. Live oak grows best in well-drained sandy soils and
loams but also grows in clay and alluvial soils [21]. It grows up to
328 feet (100 m) in elevation [11]. The native range of live oak
coincides approximately with the southeastern maritime sand strands
[35], as well as with the 41.9 degrees Fahrenheit (5.5 deg C) isotherm
for the average minimum daily temperature of the coldest month [26].
Although generally considered a mesophytic species, live oak is common
on xeric, mesic, and hydric hammocks in the southeastern United States.
(A hammock is a dense, hardwood forest that occurs in pinelands and in
limited, elevated areas amidst wet prairies and marshes.) Although live
oak is absent from the wetter areas in hydric hammocks [47], it occurs
in some hammocks where its roots are covered by salt water during high
tide [45]. Live oak also occurs in flatwood sites and on the outer
terraces of floodplains [53]. In the coastal sand plain of southern
Texas, live oak forms mottes within grasslands [14].
The sand live oak variety, considered xerophytic, grows on drier and
more acid sites than does the typical variety. Sand live oak occurs in
greater quantity in the subtropical climates [2,35]. This variety
occurs in sandhills with other nearly evergreen scrub oaks including
Chapman oak (Quercus chapmanii) and myrtle oak (Q.myrtifolia) [33].
In addition to overstory associates mentioned in SAF cover types, common
associates of live oak include southern magnolia (Magnolia grandiflora),
water oak (Quercus nigra), pignut hickory (Carya glabra), red bay
(Persia bobonia), sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), and saw palmetto
(Serenoa repens). On less well-drained sites, live oak is associated
with sugarberry (Celtis laevigata), green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica),
and American elm (Ulmus americana) [21]. Woody species found with live
oak in mottes include American beautyberry (Callicarpa americana),
yaupon (Ilex vomitoria), and greenbrier (Smilax spp.) [42]. Netleaf
hackberry (Celtis reticulata) and cedar elm (Ulmus crassifolia) grow
with live oak in riparian areas in Texas [53].
The Texas live oak variety grows in grasslands and in riparian areas.
It grows as large trees in deep soils along streams and as large shrubs
in canyon headers. Texas live oak is often associated with Texas
persimmon (Diospyros texana), Texas red oak (Q. texana), post oak (Q.
stellata), and honey mesquite (Prosopis glandulosa) [41,42].
SUCCESSIONAL STATUS :
Live oak is intermediate in shade tolerance. Once established, it
withstands competition. Live oak is extremely salt tolerant, and this
resistance may account for its dominance in many climax coastal forests
in the northern part of its range [22]. Live oak may also be a climatic
climax on Carolina coasts [26]. In the succession from coastal shrub
thicket to maritime forest, the typical live oak variety is often
preceded by the sand live oak variety. Live oak will usually become the
chief dominant, but southern magnolia has the potential of partial or
complete dominance [35].
The exclusion of fire has increased the presence of live oak in the
Atlantic and Gulf coastal plains. In the absence of fire, live oak
expands from hammocks into dry, coastal prairies in Florida and
Louisiana. The expanding vegetation is dominated by live oak and saw
palmetto, which are characteristic of hammock fringe vegetation [16,24]
In the absence of fire, southern magnolia and live oak form a climatic
climax on former longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) savannas [8]. Slash
pine (P. elliottii)-oak vegetation is also replaced by live oak [16].
In Texas, fire suppression and overgrazing have created a live
oak-juniper disclimax in place of mixed prairie [39].
Twenty-five years after abandonment, live oak seedlings appear in fallow
agricultural fields on floodplains that once supported live oak. A live
oak forest matures 50 years after seedling establishment [12].
In the absence of fire, xeric hammocks dominated by live oak, may
develop into mesic hammocks, but changes are slow [46].
SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT :
Small flowers are produced in the spring when new leaves are grown.
Pollen is wind dispersed during the first 2 weeks in April. Acorns
mature the following September and fall before December [19,21]. Sand
live oak produces flowers 2 to 3 weeks later than the typical variety
when in the same locality [11].
FIRE ECOLOGY
SPECIES: Quercus virginiana | Live Oak
FIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS :
Live oak has thin bark and is readily top-killed by fire. This species
has two primary means of surviving fire: (1) Root crowns and roots
survive fire and sprout vigorously, and 92) live oak forests discourage
entry of fire from adjacent communities (see below) [10,33].
The large, spreading oak canopy encloses a humid microclimate. The
leaves are concave and, as litter, hold moisture to the ground. The
moist environment discourages fire entry and keeps fire temperatures low
[13]. In east Texas, live oak is considered fire tolerant as long as
humidities are above 45 percent [4].
There is generally a space between the understory and canopy which
prevents fire from crowning. Saw palmetto will carry fire into a live
oak stand, but it burns close to the ground [10]. The dense live oak
canopy inhibits growth of understory vegetation (e.g. grass) and litter
is sparse [47,52].
Live oak litter burns at lower temperatures than the litter of turkey
oak (Quercus laevis), post oak, or longleaf pine [52,25]. During an
experimental fire, temperatures were measured from the base of live oaks
to the adjacent grassland. The maximum temperatures on the litter
surface decreased from 412 degrees Fahrenheit (211 deg C) in the
grasslands to 140 degrees Fahrenheit (60 deg C), on average, at the base
of the live oaks [25].
POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY :
survivor species; on-site surviving root crown
FIRE EFFECTS
SPECIES: Quercus virginiana | Live Oak
IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT :
Fire top-kills live oak. Dominant live oaks can survive low-severity
fire that does not crown. Dominant live oaks larger than 3 inches (8
cm) in d.b.h. survived a fire on Cumberland Island, Georgia. Smaller
trees were top-killed [10].
The root crown and roots of young top-killed live oaks survive most
fires. A dry season hot fire in Florida killed and top-killed many live
oak that had invaded a prairie from a nearby hammock. Live oaks greater
than 12 inches (30 cm) in d.b.h. did not recover by sprouting, but
smaller oaks did. Dominant live oaks in the established hammock areas
were not killed [24].
The average surface fire is hot enough to destroy all acorns on the
ground [16].
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT :
NO-ENTRY
PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE :
If top-killed, young live oaks sprout from the root collar and from
roots. Most sprout growth occurs in the first postfire year. Seven
months after a prescribed fire in Florida, the mean height for sand live
oak sprouts was 9.5 inches (24 cm). The mean height remained near 12
inches (30 cm) for the next 5 years [2]. After this fire, sand live oak
returned to preburn levels of dominance with respect to cover in 2 to 3
years. The number of sprouts declined with time [1].
Live oak stem densities increased after a prescribed fire of scrubby
live oak plots in the Aransas National Wildlife Refuge on the Texas
Coastal Plain. Acorn production was reduced in the first postfire year,
but increased to preburn levels in the second year. Top-killed live oak
is capable of flowering and producing acorns on sprouts in the first
postfire year. Mottes containing large live oaks did not burn [42].
The same plots in the Aransas National Wildlife refuge were burned every
2 years for 10 years. After 10 years, acorn production was reduced
compared to unburned plots, but the density of live oak stems remained
higher than preburn levels. Height growth was kept at a minimum by the
biennial fires. Large mottes were more susceptible to burning with each
subsequent fire [42].
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE :
NO-ENTRY
FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
Prescribed surface fires are used to maintain live oak savanna by
killing juniper and improving grass and forage quality. If fires are
frequent, however, large live oak mottes will eventually be eliminated
[28,42,51].
Lack of fire in oak savannas in Texas results in increased, dense,
thickets of live oak. Fire cannot be used to restore savannas because
fire results in increased stem densities. Frequent fires keep oak under
control, but do not eradicate it [43]. The prevalent sand live oak
groves in Florida may be an artifact of former burning practices of the
United States Forest Service [33].
In Florida, fires during a dry, growing season may reduce live oak-saw
palmetto hammock fringe habitat and restore prairie [24].
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SPECIES: Quercus virginiana | Live Oak
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Index
Related categories for Species: Quercus virginiana
| Live Oak
|
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