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Wildlife, Animals, and Plants
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Introductory
SPECIES: Quercus wislizenii | Interior Live Oak
ABBREVIATION :
QUEWIS
SYNONYMS :
Quercus parvula
Quercus shrevei
SCS PLANT CODE :
QUWI2
COMMON NAMES :
interior live oak
dwarf interior live oak
scrub interior live oak
highland live oak
Sierra live oak
TAXONOMY :
The currently accepted scientific name of interior live oak is Quercus
wislizenii A. DC [5]. Interior live oak is a member of the black or red
oak subgenus Erythrobalanus [2,7]. It readily hybridizes with other
sympatric oaks including California black oak (Q. kellogii) and
California live oak (Q. agrifolia) [2,3,4,10]. The oracle oak (Q. x
morehus) is believed to be a product of interior live oak and California
black oak hybridization [9,10].
Interior live oak is described as morphologically "diverse," and a
number of recognizable varieties or forms have been reported [9]. These
taxa differ in such characteristics as leaf and acorn morphology, and
general growth habit. Currently recognized varieties are as follows
[3,5,6]:
Quercus wislizenii var. frutescens Engelm.
Quercus wislizenii var. wislizenii
Quercus wislizenii forma extima Jeps.
LIFE FORM :
Tree, Shrub
FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS :
No special status
OTHER STATUS :
NO-ENTRY
COMPILED BY AND DATE :
D. Tirmenstein, August 1989
LAST REVISED BY AND DATE :
D. Tirmenstein, June 1990
AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION :
Tirmenstein, D. 1989. Quercus wislizenii. In: Remainder of Citation
DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
SPECIES: Quercus wislizenii | Interior Live Oak
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION :
Interior live oak occurs from Siskiyou and Shasta counties of northern
California south along the foothills of the Sierra Nevada and inner
Coast Ranges into northern Mexico [33,43,47]. It is common near the
coast and on the Channel islands [68]. Interior live oak grows on
approximately 884,000 acres (357,895 ha) in California [10]. The
variety frutescens occurs throughout the mountains of southern
California northward to Lake and Shasta counties. However, this variety
is uncommon in the Sierra Nevada [40].
ECOSYSTEMS :
FRES20 Douglas-fir
FRES21 Ponderosa pine
FRES26 Lodgepole pine
FRES27 Redwood
FRES28 Western hardwoods
FRES34 Chaparral - mountain shrub
STATES :
CA MEXICO
ADMINISTRATIVE UNITS :
CHIS KICA PINN SAMO SEQU WHIS
YOSE
BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS :
1 Northern Pacific Border
2 Cascade Mountains
3 Southern Pacific Border
4 Sierra Mountains
KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS :
K005 Mixed conifer forest
K006 Redwood
K029 California mixed evergreen forest
K030 California oakwoods
K033 Chaparral
K034 Montane chaparral
K035 Coastal sagebrush
K037 Mountain mahogany - oak scrub
SAF COVER TYPES :
232 Redwood
234 Douglas-fir - tanoak - Pacific madrone
237 Interior ponderosa pine
244 Pacific ponderosa pine - Douglas-fir
245 Pacific ponderosa pine
246 California blue oak
247 Jeffrey pine
248 Knobcone pine
249 Canyon live oak
250 Blue oak - Digger pine
255 California coast live oak
SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES :
201 Blue oak woodland
202 Coast live oak woodland
203 Riparian woodland
206 Chamise chaparral
207 Scrub oak mixed chaparral
208 Ceanothus mixed chaparral
209 Montane shrubland
422 Riparian
HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES :
This oak sometimes occurs in dense groves of small, evenly spaced
individuals but also forms shrubby thickets within mixed-conifer forests
[48]. It occurs below the mixed conifer zone in northern oak woodlands
with such species as Oregon white oak (Quercus garryana), blue oak (Q.
douglasii), valley oak (Q. lobata), canyon live oak (Q. chrysolepis),
and gray pine (P. sabiniana) [4,17,27,28,38,65]. Interior live oak is
an important component of certain riparian woodlands of California
[30,51].
Interior live oak is well-represented in oak chaparral or montane
chaparral dominated by such species as Nuttall's scrub oak (Q. dumosa)
[2,4,29,39,53,61]. It also occurs in pinyon (Pinus spp.) woodlands and
in humid conifer forests of the central California coast [10]. The
variety frutescens is most closely associated with fairly xeric
chaparral communities of southern California [11,17,56].
Interior live oak has been included in the following plant associations
and community types:
Vegetation types of the San Gabriel Mountains [29]
Vegetation of the San Bernadino Mountains [39]
A vegetation classification system applied to souther California [44]
The vascular plant communities of California [61]
An introduction to the plant communities of the Santa Ana and San
Jacinto Mountains [68]
Associated species: Other conifer or hardwood associates of interior
live oak include coastal live oak (Quercus agrifolia), Douglas-fir
(Pseudotsuga menziesii), Jeffrey pine (Pinus jeffreyi), redwood (Sequoia
sempervirens), ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), cottonwoods (Populus
spp.), tanoak (Lithocarpus densiflorus), and Pacific madrone (Arbutus
menziesii) [2,10,42]. Commonly associated understory species include
manzanita (Arctostaphylos spp.), ceanothus (Ceanothus spp.), birchleaf
mountain-mahogany (Cercocarpus betuloides), hazel (Corylus cornuta),
two-petal ash (Fraxinus dipetala), toyon (Heteromeles arbutifolia),
yerba santa (Eriodycton californicum), redberry (Rhamnus crocea),
chamise (Adenostoma fasciculatum), poison-oak (Toxicodendron
diversiloba), California redbud (Cercis occidentalis), sagebrush
(Artemisia spp.), and rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus spp.) [17].
Serviceberry (Amelanchier spp.), snowberry (Symphoricarpos spp.),
raspberries (Rubus spp.), and oceanspray (Holodiscus discolor) are
common plant associates in timbered areas [10].
VALUE AND USE
SPECIES: Quercus wislizenii | Interior Live Oak
WOOD PRODUCTS VALUE :
Interior live oak is currently highly valued as firewood in many parts
of California, and projections point to ever-increasing demands for oak
(Quercus spp.) fuelwoods [37,47,53,65]. However, cordage per acre
varies widely according to soils and climate [34]. The wood of interior
live oak has little commercial value as lumber [44]. Undesirable
characteristics such as poor durability limit its use [65].
IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE :
Interior live oak provides important food and cover for a wide variety
of birds and mammals. The following species, which occur within the
range of interior live oak, feed on the foliage of oaks: black-tailed
jackrabbit, Audubon cottontail, brush rabbit, Beechy ground squirrel,
Sonoma chipmunk, beaver, porcupine, and elk [3]. Pocket gophers
occasionally consume the cambium of young oaks [48]. In some areas,
interior live oak is a valuable year-round deer browse [56]. The
evergreen leaves can provide essential winter browse when other
preferred foods are scarce [8]. However, winter utilization by
Columbian black-tailed deer in the Sierra Nevada was reported at
approximately 15 percent, suggesting that this oak is not a preferred
browse species in this area [22]. Oak browse is generally most
important to deer during the early spring when new sprouts are abundant
[22,37]. In some areas deer use oak browse to a limited extent during
the summer [37]. Oak woodlands offer good habitat for mountain lions
because of the relatively large numbers of deer which frequent these
areas [3].
Acorns, which become available by fall, are a valuable dietary
supplement for deer and other wild ungulates [37]. However, acorn
production varies annually, and in some years relatively few acorns are
produced. Interior live oak does not generally produce acorns in great
quantity [65], but larger crops are usually produced at 5- to 7-year
intervals [43]. More deer move to winter ranges earlier in years of
abundant acorn production than in years of acorn failure [32]. Acorns
are an important food of the black-tailed jackrabbit, brush rabbit,
Beechy ground squirrel, golden-mantled ground squirrel, lodgepole
chipmunk, long-eared chipmunk, Sonoma chipmunk, Merriam chipmunk,
Douglas squirrel, porcupine, red fox, gray fox, black bear, raccoon,
striped skunk, spotted skunk, California ground squirrel, deer mice,
California vole, and harvest mice [3,26]. Acorns represented a
particularly important food source of the California grizzly bear prior
to its extinction [26]. Many birds eat acorns including quails,
ring-necked pheasant, northern flicker, acorn woodpecker, scrub jay,
magpie, Steller's jay, mountain chickadee, California thrasher, western
meadowlark, starling, purple finch, American goldfinch, rufous-sided
towhee, brown towhee, common crow, and band-tailed pigeon [26,66].
Interior live oak provides good foraging sites for Nutall's woodpecker,
white-breasted nuthatch, plain titmouse, ash-throated flycatcher,
black-headed grosbeak, and northern oriole [9].
Livestock: Cattle and domestic sheep typically utilize interior live
oak browse most during the late spring and summer [55,56]. Young shoots
are particularly favored by cattle during the summer [55]. In some
parts of California, the leaves of interior live oak, along with the
leaves of other oaks, have been found in the diets of 60 percent or more
of the sheep and cattle within the area [37]. Domestic goats apparently
consume oak browse during all seasons [61], although young shoots are
particularly sought in the spring [56]. Domestic and feral pigs consume
large numbers of acorns wherever available [3].
PALATABILITY :
The acorns and foliage of interior live oak are palatable to many birds
and mammals. However, overall palatability of the foliage of interior
live oak is described as fair. New sprouts appear to be much more
palatable to most ungulates than the mature foliage. Deer eagerly seek
out sprouts up to 2 years in age during all seasons [56]. Specific
palatability ratings are as follows [3,19]:
mast foliage
mule deer moderate moderate
wild boar heavy ----
brush mouse light light
pinyon mouse light light
California mouse light light
deer mouse light light
dusky-footed woodrat light light
western gray squirrel heavy ----
Botta pocket gopher moderate moderate
the variety frutescens -
California
cattle poor
horses useless
domestic sheep fair to useless
domestic goats fair to poor
deer excellent to good
NUTRITIONAL VALUE :
Acorns: Acorns are generally rated as relatively high in carbohydrates,
fats, and crude fiber, but low in protein and ash [37,56]. The
nutritional value of interior live oak acorns is as follows [1,19]:
moisture crude crude fat N-free ash Ca tannins P
(%) protein fiber (%) extract (%) (%) (%) (%)
(%) (%)
29.80 3.08 11.24 14.47 40.40 1.01 0.09 4.60 0.05
Foliage: Oak browse is relatively high in protein and carbohydrates.
However, tannins present in oak browse may reduce protein digestibility
[37]. The composition of leafy branches is as follows [56]:
total ash (%) silica (%) silica-free Ca P K
ash (%) (%) (%) (%)
2.27 0.34 2.93 0.707 0.069 0.335
Protein levels of interior live oak browse vary seasonally as follows
[56]:
April and May 17.5%
June - August 10.5%
September - March 8.0%
COVER VALUE :
Interior live oak provides good thermal, escape, and resting cover for
many birds and mammals. Larger California oaks (Quercus spp.) offer
shade for livestock and good hiding cover for deer [56]. Dense oak
chaparral made up of smaller shrublike oaks provides excellent thermal
cover for animals such as the gray fox and bobcat. Raccoons use hollow
oaks for dens, and black bears occasionally den at the base of trees.
Fallen oaks serve as hiding locations for deer mice, striped skunks,
gray squirrels, and fox squirrels. Interior live oak provides hiding,
resting, or nesting cover for the following species: black-tailed
jackrabbit, Audubon cottontail, brush rabbit, Beechy ground squirrel,
golden-mantled ground squirrel, lodgepole chipmunk, long-eared chipmunk,
Sonoma chipmunk, Merriam chipmunk, Douglas squirrel, San Joaquin pocket
mouse, San Diego pocket mouse, spiny pocket mouse, Stephens kangaroo
rat, San Joaquin kangaroo rat, giant kangaroo rat, desert woodrat,
common opossum, shrews, bats, beaver, pinyon mouse, brush mouse,
California mouse, deer mouse, cactus mouse, muskrat, Pacific jumping
mouse, dusky-footed woodrat, Botta pocket gopher, western gray squirrel,
porcupine, red fox, gray fox, island fox, black bear, ringtail, raccoon,
spotted skunk, striped skunk, wild boar, mountain lion, mule deer, and
elk [3]. Many birds use California oaks for perching and nesting sites.
Some larger, older interior live oaks are well-suited for excavation by
various cavity nesters [66].
VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES :
Interior live oak has been used to a limited extent in revegetating
certain riparian areas of California. Little sprouting was observed
after acorns were planted onto riparian sites in the Santa Clara Valley
of southern California, and viability may have been much reduced or lost
while seeds were in storage [23].
OTHER USES AND VALUES :
After leaching away the bitter tannins, Native Americans used the acorns
of many oaks (Quercus spp.) for cooking oils, soups, stews, or breads
[1]. Some California oaks were historically used locally as fenceposts
or mine timbers. Many are currently used for landscaping purposes [56].
Interior live oak was first cultivated in 1874 [43].
MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
Wildlife management: For maintaining optimum wildlife value in
California oak woodlands, managers recommend the following [3]:
1) maintain 25 to 50 percent canopy cover in oaks.
2) maintain basal area of 200 to 2,000 ft. sq. per 40 acres.
3) maintain a mixture of age classes.
4) disperse oaks in 0.5 to 5 acre aggregations.
Avian diversity may be enhanced by retaining large patches of oak,
leaving adequate travel corridors between patches, and keeping
structural diversity within the patches [52].
Harvesting: Interior live oak may be well-suited for periodic
harvesting for energy generation because of its high rate of biomass
production and net primary productivity [50].
Chemical control: Interior live oak is resistant to most herbicides.
Two or three treatments are often required for a complete kill [7].
Grazing: Biswell [6] reports that in areas dominated by interior live
oak which are managed primarily for livestock production, deferred
grazing may be undesirable. Browsing here serves as the main
controlling factor in brush suppression.
BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
SPECIES: Quercus wislizenii | Interior Live Oak
GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS :
Interior live oak is a slow-growing, variable evergreen which grows as a
large shrub or small tree [15,40,61]. Plants may reach 30 to 75 feet
(10-22 m) in height or assume a shrublike growth form with maximum
heights of only 8 to 10 feet (2.4-3.1 m). D.b.h. generally ranges from
1 to 3 feet (0.3-0.9 m) [47]. A maximum size of 85.3 inches (216.7 cm)
d.b.h. and 90 feet (27.5 m) in height has been reported [10]. The
gray-to-dark gray bark is smooth when young but becomes rough and
broadly ridged at maturity [40,47]. Young twigs are green-to-reddish
but become gray with age [15]. Roots can extend from 30 to 70 feet deep
(10-21 m) [18,54]. Interior live oaks have been aged up to 150 to 200
years, although the root system is often much older [47].
In relatively open stands the crown is usually dense and full, and
foliage often extends to the ground. However, crowns are often
irregularly shaped in closed stands [47]. Leaves, which persist for 2
years, are mostly oblong-to-elliptic or lanceolate, and spiny-toothed to
entire [40,47]. Both leaf surfaces are shiny green but the upper
surface is darker [15,47].
Interior live oak is monoecious. Male flowers are borne in catkins 1 to
3 inches (2-5 cm) in length, whereas female flowers grow in clusters of
two to four in the upper leaf axils [15]. The tan, often longitudinally
striped acorns are slender, cylindrical to conical, with a turbinate cap
[40].
The shrubby variety frutescens is characterized by stiff, rigid twigs
and ovate or oblong leaves 0.8 to 1.6 inches (2.0-4.1 cm) in length
[40,56]. Acorns are oblong-to-ovate and the cup is covered with thin
brown scales [56].
RAUNKIAER LIFE FORM :
Phanerophyte
REGENERATION PROCESSES :
Interior live oak regenerates vegetatively after disturbance and also
reproduces through seed. Both modes of regeneration appear to be
important, although the relative value of each depends on such factors
as weather, seed disseminators, soils, and the type and intensity of
disturbance.
Seed: Mature acorns of interior live oak are slender, oblong to ovate,
or pointed [15,40,47]. Cleaned acorns average approximately 125 per
pound (275/kg). Annual seed production appears to be somewhat variable,
although each interior live oak tree generally produces good seed crops
at 5- to 7-year intervals [43]. The dry weight yields of fallen acorns
in interior live oak stands range from 0 to 97 pounds per acre (0-109
kg/ha) [66]. Interior live oak produces an average of 958 pounds per
acre (1,074 kg/ha) of tree canopy in good mast years but averages only
113 pounds per acre (614 kg/ha) in poor mast years [37].
Germination: Ripening time varies according to annual growing
conditions and elevation [35,46]. Viable acorns have been picked as
early as August 10, although these acorns did not germinate without
prior stratification. Acorns collected 2 to 4 weeks later germinated
without any additional treatment [46]. Germination is frequently
delayed at higher elevations. It commonly occurs during late November
through January at lower elevations but often does not take place until
January or February at higher elevations [35]. Research indicates that
the acorns of interior live oak can germinate without exposure to low
temperatures [13,35]. However, exposure to temperatures of 32 to 41
degrees F (0-5 degrees C) can effectively stratify seed and enhance
germination [13,16]. Results of germination tests are as follows [43]:
cold stratification temperature F duration germination
(days) day night (days) capacity (%)
30 to 60 86 68 69 75
In laboratory tests, 50 percent of all acorns germinated within 40 days
after exposure to temperatures of 55 to 68 degrees F (13-20 degrees C)
without prior stratification [35]. Acorns are not noted for long
viability. Some acorns of interior live oak germinate after 6 to 12
months of storage, but many exhibit damage or deformity [46].
Seed dispersal and mortality: Gravity and animal vectors aid in the
dispersal of interior live oak. Squirrels and jays appear to be
particularly important dispersal agents, although they consume many
acorns. Acorns are vulnerable to predation and nearly 100 percent of
the acorns may be consumed where deer, pigs, or bear occur [3]. Acorns
are also susceptible to rot, insects, and disease. Mortality of planted
interior live oak acorns ranged from 2 to 27 percent under carefully
controlled laboratory experiments [35].
Vegetative regeneration: Interior live oak sprouts vigorously after
fire or mechanical disturbance [15,22,44]. Root crown sprouting
frequently occurs after damage to the trunk or crown [47].
Stump-sprouting is also common after fire or timber harvest [10,15].
Sprout growth of interior live oak is described as "moderate at best"
[P. McDonald, pers. comm. 1990].
SITE CHARACTERISTICS :
Interior live oak most commonly grows scattered in valleys, foothills,
or on slopes at low to middle elevations [35,40]. It is often found in
canyon bottoms and dry washes of southern California [48] and on broad
alluvial banks of rivers in the Sierra Nevada [47].
Elevation: Generalized elevational ranges of interior live oak are as
follows [35,47]:
from 1,000 to 2,000 feet (300-600 m) in northern CA
up to 6,200 feet (1,300 m) in southern CA
from 3,950 to 4,950 feet (1,200-1,500 m) in Sierra Nevada, CA
from 200 to 1,950 feet (60-600 m) in Santa Lucia Mtns., CA
Soils: California oaks generally grow well on a variety of soils
including well-drained, fine-grained to cobbly or gravelly sandy loams,
or skeletal soils. Soil pH generally ranges between 5.6 and 7.5, with
common soil depths of 20 to 40 inches (50-100 cm) [48]. Interior live
oak grows particularly well on dry, shallow, well-drained loams, clay
loams, gravelly loams, or gravel [12,27,34,65].
SUCCESSIONAL STATUS :
Interior live oak is tolerant of shade, particularly when young [47],
and occurs within the understory of some climax conifer forests of
California. Cooper [17] reported that the variety frutescens is
especially common in climax chaparral communities which are maintained
by fire. Interior live oak is a prolific sprouter and can also assume
prominence in some early seral communities.
SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT :
Interior live oak flowers from March to May [40]. Acorns mature in the
second year [12]. Ripening time varies annually and depends largely on
elevation and growing conditions. Acorns generally ripen after
mid-August [46]. Immature acorns of live oaks which are poorly
developed, or which have been damaged by rain, hail, wind, or insects
may begin to fall as early as May [35]. Mature acorns are dispersed in
late summer or fall.
FIRE ECOLOGY
SPECIES: Quercus wislizenii | Interior Live Oak
FIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS :
Interior live oak appears to be well-adapted to persist with or without
fire. It occupies fire-prone chaparral but also grows in relatively
mesic areas which burn at infrequent intervals. Large, single-stemmed
trees are generally only found in areas which have not burned in 50 to
100 years. Shrubby interior live oak is common in chaparral, where
fairly frequent fires produce dense thickets of multi-stemmed
individuals [44]. The shrubby growth form may represent an adaption to
fire. These shrubby plants tend to reach sexual maturity at an earlier
age than treelike growth forms [13]. The trait of "evergreeness" allows
species such as interior live oak to allocate greater amounts of energy
to regeneration than to vegetative growth. Evergreens are often better
able to conserve available nutrients than deciduous species, and may be
favored in these fire-prone settings [36].
Interior live oak often grows as a dominant on relatively mesic northern
exposures in oak (Quercus spp.) chaparral. Here it grows fairly rapidly
and soon reaches sufficient height to shade out most postfire seeding
species [38]. The prominence of sprouters such as interior live oak in
drier chaparral communities does not necessarily imply that these plants
possess specific fire adaptations, but that they are better generalists
in these arid habitats than are most postfire seeders [36].
Aboveground portions of interior live oak are described as sensitive to
fire [44], and plants are generally top-killed. The thin bark and small
diameter typical of this species offer little protection [24,45].
However, plants generally sprout prolifically from the stump and root
crown after fire or other disturbance [10,15,47]. Postfire seedling
establishment can also occur [69], although success may be highly
dependent on weather conditions.
POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY :
Tree with adventitious-bud root crown/soboliferous species root sucker
Initial-offsite colonizer (off-site, initial community)
FIRE EFFECTS
SPECIES: Quercus wislizenii | Interior Live Oak
IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT :
Trunks and crowns of interior live oak are extremely sensitive to fire
[44,47]. However, because of this oak's ability to sprout after fire,
plants usually survive even when aboveground vegetation is consumed.
Interior live oak is generally top-killed whenever fuels burn around the
base of the tree [24]. The total effect of fire on oaks varies
according to fire intensity and severity, fire behavior, season of burn,
and size of the plants [45,47]. Generally, late season fires are more
damaging to oaks than those which occur in the spring. Winter fires
appear to cause the least damage. Slower moving, lower intensity fires
are typically more damaging to the trunk than fires of higher intensity
but shorter duration. Crowns are most susceptible to fires of higher
intensity, even if they are of short duration. Bark is typically less
severely damaged when burned at lower ambient air temperatures. Oaks
less than 6 inches (15.2 cm) d.b.h. are generally top-killed by even low
intensity fires [47].
Younger trees, and those with smaller diameters and lower crown heights
tend to be most susceptible. In comparison with other oaks, interior
live oak has a high ratio of inner to outer bark, but total bark
thickness is low and offers little protection. Researchers observed
that even interior live oaks with a bark thickness of 1 inch (2.5 cm) or
more were girdled at the base after a fire of moderate intensity. Most
California interior live oaks have a d.b.h. of less than 12 inches (30.5
cm) which further increases vulnerability to fire [45].
Stem and bark: Young oak stems which have been damaged by heat
generally change from a gray to reddish-gray in color. The subsurface
layer of the bark changes from a green to tan or brown, and inner bark
appears yellow instead of the normal white or pink. Damaged inner bark
often develops a characteristic fermented aroma [47]. When the bark of
interior live oak is charred, cambium death is almost inevitable [45].
The cambium can be considered dead if the bark has been consumed, or if
it appears to be cracked and separated from the wood. Trunk char may be
categorized as follows [47]:
light charring - spotty char or scattered pitting of the bark.
medium charring - continuous charing, areas of minor bark
reduction.
heavy charring - pronounced reductions in bark thickness, wood
sometimes exposed.
Crown: Crown damage is variable in oaks and the degree of damage can
differ even within an individual crown [45]. The extent of damage may
range from none to total removal of the foliage.
The actual extent of damage is not always readily apparent in oaks. A
period of several years may be required for the full extent of damage to
become evident. [See Discussion and Qualification of Fire Effect].
Fire-related injuries can increase oak's susceptibility to attack by
insects, fungus, or windthrow [45]. Although portions of most interior
live oaks survive after plants are top-killed by fire, some are killed
if burned too frequently [48]. Acorns are extremely sensitive to heat
[45] and are generally killed even when buried in the soil, litter, or
duff.
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT :
The full effect of fire on interior live oak may not become obvious for
some time. It may be necessary to wait at least one growing season, and
preferably three, before the amount of injury can be accurately
determined. Trees with bark as thick as 1.5 to 2.0 inches (3.8-5.1 cm)
can be girdled, although initial visual examination suggests that the
bark has received only minor charring. The surface of even heavily
charred interior live oak remains smooth and often retains the original
furrow patterns. As the bark dries, vertical cracks may appear,
exposing the damaged tissue beneath [47]. Various methods have been
developed for assessing damage to oaks including chemical, electrical,
and visual techniques [45,47].
PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE :
Interior live oak sprouts vigorously after the trunk or crown has been
damaged by fire [8,22,56,60]. This oak sprouts from the stump [10,15]
when remaining portions are sufficiently undamaged, and from the base or
root crown [44,47]. Root crown sprouting, after damage to the trunk and
crown, is generally vigorous [47]. Under some circumstances, postfire
regeneration from seed may also occur [10,69], although acorns are
vulnerable to heat [45]. Favorable weather conditions are necessary for
good germination, and sprouting appears to be the primary mode of
regeneration in most areas. Repeated fires generally produce small
multistemmed trees [47].
Postfire recovery: Initial sprout growth is slow [16, P. McDonald,
pers. comm. 1990], although Biswell and Gilman [8] reported that in the
western Sierra Nevada of northern California, sprouts reached 24.9
inches (63 cm) in height within 10 or 11 months after fire. By the end
of the second growing season, maximum sprout heights of 78 inches (198
cm) were reported, and a few sprouts had grown to 95 inches (241 cm) in
height by the third summer. Maximum sprout heights of 8 feet 9 inches
(267 cm) were observed by the fourth postfire growing season [1]. Oak
(Quercus spp.) chaparral dominated by interior live oak (variety
frutescens) and Nuttall's scrub oak (Q. dumosa) develop impenetrable
cover within 5 to 10 years after fire [39].
Canopy cover of interior live oak is initially reduced by fire although
actual oak numbers typically increase. Vogl [67] observed the following
response of interior live oak in a recently burned knobcone pine (Pinus
attenuata) forest of southern California:
% cover # plants per acre
unburned 5.4 88
burned 4.5 173
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE :
NO-ENTRY
FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
Fuels and flammability: The heat content and flammability of interior
live oak has been calculated as follows [45]:
(theoretical value for heat of combustion = 8,600 Btu/lb.)
density (lb/cu ft) heat content (Btu/lb)
outer bark 62 9,875
inner bark 45 7,700
wood 44 7,925
Prescribed fire: Plumb [45] reports "successful use of prescribed fire
in interior live oak management does not seem promising" where
maintenance of woodlands is a primary management goal. Poor heat
resistance and easily damaged bark generally result in stem mortality or
damage producing high potential for decay [11, P. McDonald, pers. comm.
1990]. Large individual trees may feasibly be protected in small areas
[45]. Repeated fires may be used to maintain this oak as a small
multistemmed plant [47].
Postfire harvest: A correct determination of the degree of damage is
essential before appropriate harvest recommendations can be made. Plumb
and Gomez [47] suggest waiting at least one growing season, and if
possible three, before cutting larger valuable trees which have
uncertain potential for crown survival. Once damage has been assessed,
the following guidelines may be used [45]:
tree size and degree of trunk char -
light medium heavy
< 6 inches dbh cut cut cut
6-12 inches dbh leave cut cut
> 12 inches dbh leave cut cut
Harvesting may be recommended if 75 percent of the trunk is girdled on
trees less than 6 inches (15.2 cm) d.b.h., or if more than 50 percent is
girdled on trees greater than 6 inches d.b.h. [45].
Valley oak savannas: Certain higher elevation valley oak (Q. lobata)
savannas in the Santa Lucia Mountains of central coastal California, are
being invaded by species such as interior live oak. Fire suppression is
frequently cited as a probable cause of this vegetative shift. Although
seedlings of both oaks are eaten by herbivores, interior live oak
sprouts tend to be somewhat more browse-resistant. Increased livestock
utilization may favor interior live oak. Frequent fires presumably
killed many of the young interior live oak sprouts and helped to
maintain valley oak savanna [26].
Wildlife and livestock: Sprouts are extremely vulnerable to herbivores
during the first few years after fire [22,25,56]. Domestic goats can
kill a large proportion of sprouts and seedlings during the first 3 to 5
years after fire. Deer prefer oak sprouts and feed on them year-round
for at least the first 2 postfire years [56]. Fire in California oak
woodlands can create favorable, although transitory, habitat for birds
such as the flicker and hairy woodpecker which feed on insects present
in the branches of fire-killed trees [14].
REFERENCES
SPECIES: Quercus wislizenii | Interior Live Oak
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[5404]
Index
Related categories for Species: Quercus wislizenii
| Interior Live Oak
|
 |
