|
Wildlife, Animals, and Plants
|
|
Introductory
SPECIES: Salvia mellifera | Black Sage
ABBREVIATION :
SALMEL
SYNONYMS :
NO-ENTRY
SCS PLANT CODE :
SAME3
COMMON NAMES :
black sage
TAXONOMY :
The currently accepted scientific name of black sage is Salvia mellifera
Green [19]. There are no recognized varieties or forms [19].
Black sage hybridizes with a number of Salvia species including white
sage (S. apiana), purple sage (S. leucophylla), and chia (S.
columbariae). Hybrid populations are relatively uncommon, however, and
are largely limited to severely disturbed areas [4,9].
LIFE FORM :
Shrub
FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS :
No special status
OTHER STATUS :
NO-ENTRY
COMPILED BY AND DATE :
N. McMurray, August 1990
LAST REVISED BY AND DATE :
NO-ENTRY
AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION :
McMurray, Nancy E. 1990. Salvia mellifera. In: Remainder of Citation
DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
SPECIES: Salvia mellifera | Black Sage
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION :
Black sage is distributed in the Coast Ranges of California from Contra
Costa and western Stanislaus counties southward into Baja California
[5,40]. It also occurs on the Channel islands off the coast of southern
California [5,35].
ECOSYSTEMS :
FRES30 Desert shrub
FRES34 Chaparral - mountain shrub
STATES :
CA MEXICO
ADMINISTRATIVE UNITS :
CABR CHIS PINN SAMO
BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS :
3 Southern Pacific Border
7 Lower Basin and Range
KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS :
K033 Chaparral
K034 Montane chaparral
K035 Coastal sagebrush
K042 Creosote bush - bursage
SAF COVER TYPES :
NO-ENTRY
SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES :
204 North coastal shrub
205 Coastal sage shrub
206 Chamise chaparral
207 Scrub oak mixed chaparral
208 Ceanothus mixed chaparral
211 Creosotebush scrub
212 Blackbush
501 Saltbush-greasewood
HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES :
Black sage is a shrub component of coastal sage scrub, chaparral, and
desert scrub communities throughout much of California [10,20,34].
Published classifications listing black sage as a dominant component of
the vegetation are presented below.
Preliminary descriptions of the terrestrial natural communities of
California [15]
Vegetation types of the San Bernadino Mountains [17]
The community composition of California coastal sage scrub [28]
A vegetation classification system applied to southern California [42]
Common associates include [12,15,28,51,54]:
Coastal sage scrub: California sagebrush (Artemisia californica),
California buckwheat (Eriogonum fasciculatum), white sage,
purple sage, California encelia (Encelia californica), common
deerweed (Lotus scoparius), lemonade sumac (Rhus integrifolia),
chaparral yucca (Yucca whipplei), bush monkeyflower (Mimulus
aurantiacus), bluedick (Brodiaea pulchella), brome (Bromus
spp.), filaree (Erodium spp.), mustards (Brassica spp.), and
schismus (Schismus spp.).
Chaparral: chamise (Adenostoma fasciculatum), white sage,
ceanothus (Ceanothus spp.), manzanita (Arctostaphylos spp.),
laurel sumac (Malosma laurina), California buckwheat, and poison-oak
(Toxicodendron diversilobum).
Desert scrub: creosotebush (Larrea tridentata), white
burrobush (Hymenolea salsola), and staghorn cholla (Opuntia
echinocarpa).
VALUE AND USE
SPECIES: Salvia mellifera | Black Sage
WOOD PRODUCTS VALUE :
NO-ENTRY
IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE :
Black sage is generally considered of little importance to livestock or
big game [2]. Although domestic sheep and goats may browse plants to
some extent [47,57], deer seldom utilize black sage [16,27,35]. Rodents
make limited use of black sage browse [2,57]. On chaparral sites in
southern California, woodrats gather and store the leaves for
consumption during the winter [18]. Sage (Salvia ssp.) seeds are a
staple food of numerous birds and small mammals [57]. Birds which
utilize sage seeds include the Gambel's quail and scaled quail [47].
PALATABILITY :
Black sage browse is largely unpalatable to most livestock and wildlife
due to its pungent odor and bitter taste [27].
NUTRITIONAL VALUE :
NO-ENTRY
COVER VALUE :
Black sage presumably provides nesting and hiding cover for numerous
birds and small mammals.
VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES :
Black sage is a suitable revegetation species because of its
drought-resistance, spreading habit, and rapid growth rate [6,16,45].
It is recommended for use in greenbelts and parkways, as well as in
areas where restoration of coastal sage scrub habitat is desired [45].
Seedling establishment is good when fresh seed is hand-broadcast or
hydroseeded in December to mid-February [16,45]. Horton [16] cautions
that seeds should not be soaked before sowing because soaking results in
a gelatinous mass of seeds.
In southern California, black sage is recommended for erosion control
plantings within coastal sage scrub communities [6,16]. Suitable sites
include sunny slopes with either shallow or deep soils at elevations
below 6,000 feet (1,830 m). Survival of bareroot nursery stock was 44
percent when planted in soils 6 feet (1.8 m) deep at an elevation of
2,700 feet (823 m); survival of 2-year-old wild seedling transplants was
24 percent [16]. Established plants often reach full stature within 5
years [45].
OTHER USES AND VALUES :
Native Americans have used black sage for culinary purposes. Seeds
were parched and ground into a meal used in baking. Crushed leaves and
stems were used as a mint-flavored condiment [2,3].
Like many coastal sage scrub species, black sage is quite susceptible to
air pollution damage from sulfur dioxide and possibly ozone.
Consequently, it is an effective biological monitor of air pollution for
areas of southern California [53]. It is regarded as one of the best
honey plants along the Pacific Coast [57].
MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
Black sage increases on heavily grazed sites [35]. It has become
dominant over small areas on Santa Cruz Island due to decades of severe
overgrazing by feral animals [35].
BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
SPECIES: Salvia mellifera | Black Sage
GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS :
Black sage is a native, semideciduous, subligneous, malacophyllous
(soft-leaved) subshrub that grows between 3.3 and 6.6 feet (1-2 m) tall
[16,21,32,40,55]. Plants are openly branched and spreading [16,40,47].
The square stems are green or purple when young but turn brownish-gray
with age [2]. The aromatic leaves are dark green and wrinkled above
with lighter-colored undersides [2,40]. Flowers are 0.5 inch (1.25 cm)
long, pale blue or white, and arranged in compact whorls spaced at
intervals along the flowering stalk [2,40]. The fruit is a smooth, dark
brown, dehiscent nutlet approximately 0.08 inch (2 mm) long [22,40].
Black sage is shallow rooted [16]. The much branched and fibrous root
system rarely extends 2 feet (0.6 m) below the soil surface with the
majority of roots concentrated in the top 5 inches (12.5 cm) of soil
[14,16]. Longevity of black sage is estimated at 20 to 30 years
[16,32].
RAUNKIAER LIFE FORM :
Undisturbed State: Phanerophyte (nanophanerophyte)
Burned State: Hemicryptophyte
REGENERATION PROCESSES :
Black sage reproduces by both sexual and vegetative means. Seedling
recruitment and vegetative regeneration occur immediately following fire
as well as during extended fire-free intervals [20,21,32].
Seed reproduction: Black sage flowers almost annually once plants have
established [22]. The small, lightweight seed is widely dispersed
during the summer [22]. Although seed longevity is not documented for
black sage, seeds of closely related chia remain viable for at least a
decade under laboratory storage [20].
Black sage exhibits a complex germination behavior that permits seedling
establishment under a number of environmental conditions. Because seed
germinates readily when exposed to light [25,36], black sage invades
disturbed areas. Keeley [21] recorded 23 percent germination when seeds
were incubated in the light at 73 degrees F (23 deg C). Most seeds
germinated within the first week. Germination increased to 50 percent
when seeds were exposed to alternating temperatures of 55 degrees F and
79 degrees F (13 degrees C and 26 degrees C) for 12 hours each. Keeley
[20] suggests that alternating diurnal temperatures such as these are
likely near the soil surface of gaps within undisturbed chaparral and
coastal sage scrub communities and may account for black sage seedling
recruitment in canopy gaps. Germination is inhibited by darkness [20].
Seeds buried in the soil remain dormant and require the presence of
charred wood for germination [21].
Vegetative regeneration: Black sage may spread vegetatively by
producing adventitious roots along decumbent branches [14,58].
Established individuals also rejuvenate their canopies through the
continual production of new basal sprouts from epicormic buds at the
stem base [32]. Following disturbances such as fire or cutting, black
sage sprouts from surviving adventitious buds on the root crown
[20,33,59].
SITE CHARACTERISTICS :
Black sage typically occurs at low elevations on the coastal and inland
sides of the California Coast Range. Sites include dry slopes and
benches below 3,000 feet (915 m) [2,40]. Dominant Salvia species
segregate by moisture preference within coastal sage scrub communities
[51,54]. Relative to other Salvias, black sage occupies more mesic
habitats [28,29,51]. It is common on coarse-textured soils including
those derived from unconsolidated sand, limestone, sandstone, and
serpentine [16,28,51]. Within Venturan coastal sage scrub communities,
black sage prefers coarser-textured soils and more southerly aspects
than purple sage [54]. Whereas annual precipitation on black sage
dominated sites may average 14.5 inches (36.2 cm), sites dominated by
purple sage receive 13.6 inches (33.9 cm) of annual precipitation [54].
Although black sage may occur as scattered individuals [4] or intermixed
with other Salvia species, it often forms pure, monospecific stands that
extend over large areas [28,51,54].
SUCCESSIONAL STATUS :
Black sage is a short-lived, shade-intolerant species that nonetheless
produces self-perpetuating stands within coastal sage scrub communities
[28,52,54]. Continual seedling recruitment within intact stands and
basal sprouting by established individuals allows black sage to maintain
vigorous, mixed-aged stands during extended fire-free intervals [53].
Stands unburned for 60 years do not appear senescent [32,53]. Within
Venturan coastal sage scrub communities, black sage attained highest
cover in tall-canopied, older stands exhibiting substantial litter
buildups [51]. On these sites black sage is a keystone species that
controls the composition and abundance of herbaceous associates [54].
Evidence suggests that it influences the associated flora through
biotic-control factors such as allelopathy [37,38,39], shading [49], and
the selective herbivory of associated rodents [53,54].
Black sage typically occupies gaps within the chaparral canopy.
Although seedlings rapidly invade recent burns within drier chaparral
communities, maximum cover occurs during postburn years 3 and 4 and
subsequently declines as the stand matures [60]. In chaparral stands
over 20 years of age, black sage recruits seedlings in canopy gaps and
may form enclaves [53].
SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT :
Black sage is a herbaceous perennial that becomes woody at the base
[26]. Plants die back somewhat in the winter and produce new growth in
the spring. Like many associated coastal sage scrub dominants, black
sage is a semideciduous or seasonally dimorphic species [52]. Large
leaves develop on main shoots during the winter when moisture is most
abundant and these are dropped over the summer drought period. Smaller,
axillary leaves are produced immediately following the formation of
main-shoot leaves but are retained until the following winter [52,53].
Black sage typically blooms from March to June [9,40]. Flowering
coincides with the early season activity of solitary, native bees [9].
Phenological development of black sage on chaparral sites in the Santa
Monica Mountain foothills is presented below [48]:
growth initiated September - following autumnal
rains
main period of stem elongation March - late May
flower stalks dried June
early season leaves dropped June
stem growth terminated June
FIRE ECOLOGY
SPECIES: Salvia mellifera | Black Sage
FIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS :
Black sage sprouts from dormant buds on the root crown following low
severity fires [27,50,55]. It is also establishes abundant seedlings
from soil-stored seed [13,20]. As a result, black sage is able to
rapidly reoccupy recent burns within coastal sage scrub and chaparral
communities. Seasonal dimorphism in leaf duration apparently enhances
black sage survival on drier chaparral sites during early years of
postfire succession [53].
POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY :
Small shrub, adventitious-bud root crown
Ground residual colonizer (on-site, initial community)
Initial-offsite colonizer (off-site, initial community)
FIRE EFFECTS
SPECIES: Salvia mellifera | Black Sage
IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT :
Black sage is a fire-sensitive species that may suffer significant
postburn mortality [16,21,62]. Perennating buds on the root crown are
presumably very near the soil surface and are susceptible to fire
damage. Initial estimates of the belowground heat tolerance of black
sage indicate that root crowns fail to resprout at fire reaction
intensities over 200 kcal/sec/m sq [55]. Black sage is likely to
survive the majority of fires in Venturan and Riversidian coastal sage
scrub communities (calculated fire reaction intensities of 170 to 200
kcal/sec/m sq) but substantial mortality can be expected following
higher intensity chaparral fires [21,53].
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT :
NO-ENTRY
PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE :
Postfire regeneration in black sage involves a combination of sprout
regeneration and seedling recruitment [20]. Predominant mode of
postburn reestablishment varies geographically [20]. Postfire recovery
within coastal sage scrub communities is primarily through sprouting
[55,63]. Westman and others [55] found that sprouting potential of
coastal sage scrub species is generally greater on lower elevation,
maritime sites than at high elevations inland. They indicate that
ecotypic variation may be responsible for this differencial sprouting
response. Following higher severity chaparral fires, black sage is
usually a nonsprouter and relies on the previously dormant seed bank for
rapid postburn establishment [21,24,62].
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE :
NO-ENTRY
FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
NO-ENTRY
REFERENCES
SPECIES: Salvia mellifera | Black Sage
REFERENCES :
1. Bernard, Stephen R.; Brown, Kenneth F. 1977. Distribution of mammals,
reptiles, and amphibians by BLM physiographic regions and A.W. Kuchler's
associations for the eleven western states. Tech. Note 301. Denver, CO:
U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. 169 p.
[434]
2. Conrad, C. Eugene. 1987. Common shrubs of chaparral and associated
ecosystems of southern California. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-99. Berkeley, CA:
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest
and Range Experiment Station. 86 p. [4209]
3. Dale, Nancy. 1986. Flowering plants: The Santa Monica Mountains, coastal
and chaparral regions of southern California. Santa Barbara, CA: Capra
Press. In coooperation with: The California Native Plant Society. 239 p.
[7605]
4. Epling, Carl. 1947. Natural hybridization of Salvia apiana and S.
mellifera. Evolution. 1: 69-78. [12002]
5. Epling, Carl; Lewis, Harlan. 1942. The centers of distribution of the
chaparral and coastal sage associations. American Midland Naturalist.
27: 445-462. [9793]
6. Everett, Percy C. 1957. A summary of the culture of California plants at
the Rancho Santa Ana Botanic Garden 1927-1950. Claremont, CA: The Rancho
Santa Ana Botanic Garden. 223 p. [7191]
7. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and
Canada. Washington, DC: Society of American Foresters. 148 p. [905]
8. Garrison, George A.; Bjugstad, Ardell J.; Duncan, Don A.; [and others].
1977. Vegetation and environmental features of forest and range
ecosystems. Agric. Handb. 475. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service. 68 p. [998]
9. Grant, Karen A.; Grant, Verne. 1964. Mechanical isolation of Salvia
apiana and Salvia mellifera. Evolution. 18: 196-212. [12001]
10. Hanes, Ted L. 1976. Vegetation types of the San Gabriel Mountians. In:
Latting, June, ed. Symposium proceedings: plant communities of southern
California; 1974 May 4; Fullerton, CA. Special Publication No. 2.
Berkeley, CA: California Native Plant Society: 65-76. [4227]
11. Hanes, Ted L. 1977. California chaparral. In: Barbour, Michael G.;
Major, Jack, eds. Terrestrial vegetation of California. New York: John
Wiley and Sons: 417-469. [7216]
12. Hanes, Ted L. 1981. California chaparral. In: Di Castri, F.; Goodall, D.
W.; Specht, R. L., eds. Mediterranean-type shrublands. Amsterdam:
Elsevier Science Publishers B.V: 139-174. [13576]
13. Hanes, Ted L.; Jones, Harold W. 1967. Postfire chaparral succession in
southern California. Ecology. 48(2): 259-264. [9824]
14. Hellmers, H.; Horton, J. S.; Juhren, G.; O'Keefe, J. 1955. Root systems
of some chaparral plants in southern California. Ecology. 36(4):
667-678. [6147]
15. Holland, Robert F. 1986. Preliminary descriptions of the terrestrial
natural communities of California. Sacramento, CA: California Department
of Fish and Game. 156 p. [12756]
16. Horton, Jerome S. 1949. Trees and shrubs for erosion control of southern
California mountains. Berkeley, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Forest Service, California [Pacific Southwest] Forest and Range
Experiment Station; California Department of Natural Resources, Division
of Forestry. 72 p. [10689]
17. Horton, Jerome S. 1960. Vegetation types of the San Bernardino
Mountains. Tech. Rep. PSW-44. Berkeley, CA: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest and Range
Experiment Station. 29 p. [10687]
18. Horton, Jerome S.; Wright, John T. 1944. The wood rat as an ecological
factor in southern California watersheds. Ecology. 25(3): 341-351.
[10682]
19. Kartesz, John T.; Kartesz, Rosemarie. 1980. A synonymized checklist of
the vascular flora of the United States, Canada, and Greenland. Volume
II: The biota of North America. Chapel Hill, NC: The University of North
Carolina Press; in confederation with Anne H. Lindsey and C. Richie
Bell, North Carolina Botanical Garden. 500 p. [6954]
20. Keeley, J. E. 1986. Seed germination patterns of Salvia mellifera in
fire-prone environments. Oecologia. 71: 1-5. [4891]
21. Keeley, Jon E. 1986. Resilience of Mediterranean shrub communities to
fires. In: Dell, B.; Hopkins, A. J. N.; Lamont B. B., editors.
Resilience in Mediterranean-type ecosystems. Dordrecht, the Netherlands:
Dr. W. Junk Publishers: 95-112. [9826]
22. Keeley, Jon E. 1987. Role of fire in seed germination of woody taxa in
California chaparral. Ecology. 68(2): 434-443. [5403]
23. Keeley, Jon E.; Keeley, Sterling C. 1981. Post-fire regeneration of
southern California chaparral. American Journal of Botany. 68(4):
524-530. [4660]
24. Keeley, Jon E.; Keeley, Sterling C. 1984. Postfire recovery of
California coastal sage scrub. American Midland Naturalist. 111(1):
105-117. [5587]
25. Keeley, Jon E.; Keeley, Sterling C. 1988. Chaparral. In: Barbour,
Michael G.; Billings, William Dwight, eds. North American terrestrial
vegetation. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press: 165-207.
[19545]
26. Keeley, J. E.; Morton, B. A.; Pedrosa, A.; Trotter, P. 1985. Role of
allelopathy, heat and charred wood in the germination of chaparral herbs
and suffrutescents. Journal of Ecology. 73: 445-458. [5564]
27. Kinucan, Edith Seyfert. 1965. Deer utilization of postfire chaparral
shrubs and fire history of the San Gabiel Mountians. Los Angeles, CA:
California State College, Los Angeles. 61 p. Thesis. [11163]
28. Kirkpatrick, J. B.; Hutchinson, C. F. 1977. The community composition of
Californian coastal sage scrub. Vegetatio. 35(1): 21-33. [5612]
29. Kirkpatrick, J. B.; Hutchinson, C. F. 1980. The environmental
relationships of Californian coastal sage scrub and some of its
component communities and species. Journal of Biogeography. 7: 23-38.
[5608]
30. Kuchler, A. W. 1964. Manual to accompany the map of potential vegetation
of the conterminous United States. Special Publication No. 36. New York:
American Geographical Society. 77 p. [1384]
31. Lyon, L. Jack; Stickney, Peter F. 1976. Early vegetal succession
following large northern Rocky Mountain wildfires. In: Proceedings, Tall
Timbers fire ecology conference and Intermountain Fire Research Council
fire and land management symposium; 1974 October 8-10; Missoula, MT. No.
14. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research Station: 355-373. [1496]
32. Malanson, George P.; Westman, Walter E. 1985. Postfire succession in
Californian coastal sage scrub: the role of continual basal sprouting.
American Midland Naturalist. 113(2): 309-318. [1516]
33. Martin, Bradford D. 1984. Influence of slope aspect on postfire
reproduction of Encelia farinosa (Asteraceae). Madrono. 31(3): 187-189.
[4936]
34. Minnich, Richard A. 1976. Vegetation of the San Bernardino Mountains.
In: Latting, June, ed. Symposium proceedings: plant communities of
southern California; 1974 May 4; Fullerton, CA. Special Publication No.
2. Berkeley, CA: California Native Plant Society: 99-124. [4232]
35. Minnich, Richard A. 1982. Grazing, fire, and the management of
vegetation on Santa Catalina Island, California. In: Conrad, C. Eugene;
Oechel, Walter C., technical coordinators. Proceedings of the symposium
on dynamics and management of Mediterranean-type ecosystems; 1981 June
22-26; San Diego, CA. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-58. Berkeley, CA: U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest and
Range Experiment Station: 444-449. [6051]
36. Mirov, N. T.; Kraebel, C. J. 1937. Collecting and propagating the seeds
of California wild plants. Res. Note No. 18. Berkeley, CA: U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, California Forest and Range
Experiment Station. 27 p. [9787]
37. Muller, Cornelius H. 1966. The role of chemical inhibition (allelopathy)
in vegetational composition. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club.
93(5): 332-351. [13672]
38. Muller, Cornelius H.; Hanawalt, Ronald B.; McPherson, James K. 1968.
Allelopathic control of herb growth in the fire cycle of California
chaparral. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club. 95(3): 225-231.
[4973]
39. Muller, Walter H.; Muller, Cornelius H. 1964. Volatile growth inhibitors
produced by Salvia species. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club.
91(4): 327-330. [13671]
40. Munz, Philip A. 1973. A California flora and supplement. Berkeley, CA:
University of California Press. 1905 p. [6155]
41. Patric, James H.; Hanes, Ted L. 1964. Chaparral succession in a San
Gabriel Mountain area of California. Ecology. 45(2): 353-360. [9825]
42. Paysen, Timothy E.; Derby, Jeanine A.; Black, Hugh, Jr.; [and others].
1980. A vegetation classification system applied to southern California.
Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-45. Berkeley, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station.
33 p. [1849]
43. Raunkiaer, C. 1934. The life forms of plants and statistical plant
geography. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 632 p. [2843]
44. Riggan, Philip J.; Goode, Suzanne; Jacks, Paula M.; Lockwood, Robert N.
1988. Interaction of fire and community development in chaparral of
southern California. Ecological Monographs. 58(3): 155-176. [5423]
45. Sproul, Fred J. 1988. Restoration of coastal sage scrub (California).
Restoration & Management Notes. 6(1): 45-46. [5424]
46. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service. 1994. Plants
of the U.S.--alphabetical listing. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service. 954 p. [23104]
47. Van Dersal, William R. 1938. Native woody plants of the United States,
their erosion-control and wildlife values. Washington, DC: U.S.
Department of Agriculture. 362 p. [4240]
48. Watkins, V. M.; DeForest, H. 1941. Growth in some chaparral shrubs of
California. Ecology. 22(1): 79-83. [10526]
49. Westman, Walter E. 1979. A potential role of coastal sage scrub
understories in the recovery of chaparral after fire. Madrono. 26:
64-68. [11031]
50. Westman, Walter E. 1981. Diversity relations and succession in
Californian coastal sage scrub. Ecology. 62(1): 170-184. [6128]
51. Westman, Walter E. 1981. Factors influencing the distribution of species
of Californian coastal sage scrub. Ecology. 62(2): 439-455. [11032]
52. Westman, Walter E. 1981. Seasonal dimorphism of foliage in Californian
coastal sage scrub. Oecologia. 51: 385-388. [11999]
53. Westman, Walter E. 1982. Coastal sage scrub succession. In: Conrad, C.
Eugene; Oechel, Walter C., technical coordinators. Proceedings of the
symposium on dynamics and management of Mediterranean-type ecosystems;
1981 June 22-26; San Diego, CA. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-58. Berkeley, CA:
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest
and Range Experiment Station: 91-99. [6013]
54. Westman, W. E. 1983. Xeric Mediterranean-type shrubland associations of
Alta and Baja California and the community/continuum debate. Vegetatio.
52: 3-19. [12000]
55. Westman, Walter E. 1991. Measuring realized niche spaces: climatic
response of chaparral and coastal sage scrub. Ecology. 72(5): 1678-1684.
[16993]
57. Dayton, William A. 1931. Important western browse plants. Misc. Publ.
101. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture. 214 p. [768]
58. Little, R. John. 1981. Adventitious rooting in coastal sage scrub
dominants. Madrono. 28(2): 96-97. [11030]
59. O'Leary, John F.; Minnich, Richard A. 1981. Postfire recovery of
creosote bush scrub vegetation in the western Colorado Desert. Madrono.
28(2): 61-66. [3973]
60. Hanes, Ted L. 1971. Succession after fire in the chaparral of southern
California. Ecological Monographs. 41(1): 27-52. [11405]
61. Horton, J. S.; Kraebel, C. J. 1955. Development of vegetation after fire
in the chamise chaparral of southern California. Ecology. 36(2):
244-262. [3737]
62. Zedler, Paul H. 1981. Vegetation change in chaparral and desert
communities in San Diego County, California. In: West, D. C.; Shugart,
H. H.; Botkin, D. B., eds. Forest succession: Concepts and application.
New York: Springer-Verlag: 406-430. [4241]
63. Malanson, George P.; O'Leary, John F. 1982. Post-fire regeneration
strategies of Californian coastal sage shrubs. Oecologia. 53: 355-358.
[3490]
64. Shiflet, Thomas N., ed. 1994. Rangeland cover types of the United
States. Denver, CO: Society for Range Management. 152 p. [23362]
65. Stickney, Peter F. 1989. Seral origin of species originating in northern
Rocky Mountain forests. Unpublished draft on file at: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Fire
Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT; RWU 4403 files. 7 p. [20090]
66. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Biological Survey. [n.d.]. NP
Flora [Data base]. Davis, CA: U.S. Department of the Interior, National
Biological Survey. [23119]
Index
Related categories for Species: Salvia mellifera
| Black Sage
|
 |
