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Wildlife, Animals, and Plants
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Introductory
SPECIES: Simmondsia chinensis | Jojoba
ABBREVIATION :
SIMCHI
SYNONYMS :
NO-ENTRY
SCS PLANT CODE :
SICH
COMMON NAMES :
jojoba
goat-nut
coffee bush
quinine plant
TAXONOMY :
The currently accepted scientific name of jojoba is Simmondsia chinensis
(Link) Schneid. [18,23,35]. Some authorities have placed jojoba in the
family Buxaceae [23,35] while others place it in its own family,
Simmondsiaceae [9,18]. There are no recognized subspecies, varieties,
or forms.
LIFE FORM :
Shrub
FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS :
No special status
OTHER STATUS :
NO-ENTRY
COMPILED BY AND DATE :
Robin F. Matthews, June 1994
LAST REVISED BY AND DATE :
NO-ENTRY
AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION :
Matthews, Robin F. 1994. Simmondsia chinensis. In: Remainder of Citation
DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
SPECIES: Simmondsia chinensis | Jojoba
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION :
In the United States, jojoba occurs in the Sonoran Desert from west
Riverside and San Diego counties, California; east through Imperial
County, California, to southern Yavapai and Greenlee counties, Arizona;
south to Cochise, Pima, and Yuma counties, Arizona [18,23,35]. Jojoba
is also distributed throughout Baja California and Sonora, Mexico, and
is found on islands in the Gulf of California [4,5,17,23,35,38].
ECOSYSTEMS :
FRES30 Desert shrub
FRES33 Southwestern shrubsteppe
FRES34 Chaparral - mountain shrub
STATES :
AZ CA MEXICO
ADMINISTRATIVE UNITS :
CABR JOTR ORPI SAGU TONT
BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS :
3 Southern Pacific Border
7 Lower Basin and Range
KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS :
K027 Mesquite bosque
K033 Chaparral
K035 Coastal sagebrush
K041 Creosotebush
K042 Creosotebush - bursage
K043 Paloverde - cactus shrub
K044 Creosotebush - tarbush
K058 Grama - tobosa shrubsteppe
SAF COVER TYPES :
242 Mesquite
SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES :
NO-ENTRY
HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES :
Jojoba is mainly found in desert shrub habitats and lower elevations
of chaparral vegetation [37,54]. In interior chaparral associations in
Arizona, jojoba occurs with typical chaparral species on dry, open sites
with an average shrub cover of 60 to 70 percent [40]. Although it is
not listed as a dominant shrub species in available publications, jojoba
is important over some parts of its range. Some minor associations in
the Sonoran Desert are dominated by jojoba on rocky, upland sites within
the paloverde (Cercidium spp.) type [30]. Jojoba is also dominant near
Puerto Libertad in Sonora on piedmont and bajada sites [7].
In addition to species already mentioned in DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE,
jojoba is associated in desert shrub habitats with saguaro (Carnegiea
gigantea), leatherstem (Jatropha spp.), brittle bush (Encelia farinosa),
ironwood (Olneya tesota), false-mesquite (Calliandra eriophylla),
ocotillo (Fouquieria splendens), littleleaf paloverde (Cercidium
microphyllum), catclaw acacia (Acacia greggii), desert hackberry (Celtis
pallidum), ratany (Krameria spp.), wolfberry (Lycium spp.), cholla or
prickly pear (Opuntia spp.), and yucca (Yucca spp.) [4,7,15,31,44,51].
Jojoba is associated in southern portions of coastal sage scrub
vegetation with California buckwheat (Eriogonum fasciculatum), sugar
sumac (Rhus ovata), white sage (Salvia apiana), common deerweed (Lotus
scoparius), and California sagebrush (Artemisia californica)
[1,15,41,47].
Jojoba is also associated with broadleaved riparian species such as
Arizona sycamore (Platanus wrightii), blue paloverde (Cercidium
floridum), hackberry (Celtis spp.), and honey mesquite (Prosopis
glandulosa var. glandulosa) in the Gila River Resource Area in eastern
Arizona [34].
VALUE AND USE
SPECIES: Simmondsia chinensis | Jojoba
WOOD PRODUCTS VALUE :
NO-ENTRY
IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE :
Jojoba foliage is important forage for livestock and wildlife
[9,15,18,32,46,54] and may provide the best browse available within its
range [23]. Jojoba foliage is eaten by mule deer [4,25,31,54,55],
desert bighorn sheep [33,49], jackrabbits [19], domestic sheep [4],
goats [4], and cattle [4,15,32]. Cattle may browse jojoba severely
enough to prevent any fruit development [15], and often consume it
faster than it grows [4]. At the Kofa National Wildlife Refuge in
Arizona, there were fewer crissal thrashers and brown towhees on grazed
versus ungrazed areas due to the fact that heavy browsing had reduced
the abundance and vigor of jojoba [48].
Jojoba is one of the four most important forage species for desert
bighorn sheep in the Kofa Mountains [33], but is less abundant in areas
used by desert bighorn sheep in the Harquahala Mountains, Arizona [24].
Jojoba's evergreen leaves provide important forage for mule deer,
especially in the fall and winter [31,32,46]. Average volume and
percent occurrence of jojoba in 11 mule deer stomachs during different
seasons at the Three Bar Wildlife Area, Tonto National Forest, Arizona
follow [31]:
Season Average volume (%) Occurrence (%)
__________________________________________________________________
Midsummer (fruits) 1 36
(foliage) 5 73
Early fall (foliage) 9 90
Late fall (foliage)* 36 87
(foliage)** 20 94
(foliage)*** 24 90
Midwinter (foliage) 20 90
Late winter (foliage) 23 80
Late spring (fruits) 7 27
(foliage) 12 91
*--following a dry summer
**--following a wet summer
***--following a wet summer with early frosts
Throughout its range, jojoba nuts are eaten by ground squirrels, desert
chipmunks, packrats, pocket gophers, mice, rabbits, birds, desert mule
deer, and other mammals [4,7,9,15]. Collared peccary in southern
Arizona spent 4 percent of their total July, August, and September
feeding time consuming jojoba seeds [10].
PALATABILITY :
Jojoba browse is highly palatable to livestock and big game animals [38].
NUTRITIONAL VALUE :
Jojoba provides highly nutritious forage for livestock and wildlife
[4,32,38,46]. Near Roosevelt Lake in southern Arizona, jojoba foliage
is highest in crude protein and phosphorous in the spring. New growth
tends to be higher in nutritional quality than old plant material,
except from December to March [46].
Nutritional compostion (%) of jojoba as desert mule deer forage in the
Picacho Mountains of Arizona follows [25]:
Fiber*
Month Dry matter Protein ADF NDF Lignin Cellulose
___________________________________________________________________________
Jan-Feb 45.73 6.99 28.01 50.86 6.12 22.68
Mar-April 51.00 10.07 27.59 48.30 7.43 19.92
May-June 42.59 7.52 29.65 54.73 9.06 19.68
Jul-Aug 57.32 6.25 39.22 58.28 10.80 27.81
Sep-Oct 44.77 10.98 30.61 55.45 7.75 23.27
Nov-Dec 44.71 9.36 27.55 55.15 8.80 19.68
*ADF--acid detergent fiber; NDF--nondetergent fiber
The following measurements (in percent) were obtained for jojoba as mule
deer forage at the Three Bar Wildlife Area on the Tonto National Forest,
Arizona [56]:
Crude Dry
Month Plant part Protein ADF* Ca P Matter** IVD***
_______________________________________________________________________
May-June Leaf 10 26 .57 .20 39 47
Stem 10 41 .31 .25 -- 47
Fruit 11 40 .79 .20 31 46
Flower 11 24 .40 .46 14 75
July-Sept Leaf 20 24 .85 .16 40 43
Stem 9 38 .72 .21 -- 35
Fruit 12 49 .22 .23 42 44
October Leaf 13 34 .93 .17 41 40
Stem 8 49 .87 .15 -- 30
Nov-Dec Leaf 13 31 1.35 .12 47 36
Stem 8 41 .66 .11 -- 31
Jan Leaf 11 25 .93 .10 44 44
Stem 8 41 .42 .11 -- 35
Feb-April Leaf 11 29 1.53 .28 44 45
Stem 8 40 .73 .32 -- 28
*ADF--acid detergent fiber
**Dry matter is given for leaves and stems combined
***IVD--in-vitro digestibility
Nutritional composition (%) of jojoba foliage as desert bighorn sheep
forage in the Harquahala Mountains of Arizona follows [49]:
Fiber*
Month Dry matter Protein ADF NDF Lignin Cellulose
__________________________________________________________________________
Jan-Feb 23.98 9.00 23.51 32.51 6.77 16.43
Mar-April 49.97 8.38 25.37 48.16 7.75 15.34
May-June 45.25 10.34 27.58 35.57 7.40 20.23
Jul-Aug 53.69 10.30 26.13 35.14 6.94 18.82
Sep-Oct 50.23 9.60 27.76 36.85 8.93 18.27
Nov-Dec 45.24 9.81 28.52 32.68 8.27 18.86
*ADF--acid detergent fiber; NDF--nondetergent fiber
COVER VALUE :
Jojoba presumably provides good cover for many small mammals and birds.
Gambel's quail use jojoba for nesting sites in southern Arizona [16].
VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES :
NO-ENTRY
OTHER USES AND VALUES :
Jojoba seed oil is chemically similar to that of sperm whale oil and can
be substituted in many processes [4,6,9,13,18]. Approximately 90
percent of the seed oil harvested is utilized by the cosmetics industry
[6]. The oil may also be used in many industrial processes and for the
production of pharmaceuticals and commercial products such as
lubricants, waxes, candles, and rubber compounds such as varnishes,
rubber adhesives, and linoleum [4,6,26,32,35,42]. The seed oil is also
a good source of straight-chain alcohols and acids used in detergents,
disinfectants, emulsifiers, and bases for creams and ointments [4]. The
seed meal by-product may have use as livestock feed if the
antinutritional compounds are removed [6,32].
Native Americans and early white settlers in the Southwest used jojoba
nuts to make a substitute for coffee. Jojoba was also used by Native
Americans for widespread medicinal purposes [4,12,23].
MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
The jojoba industry was started in 1971 when Native American communities
in California and Arizona, in collaboration with researchers from
federal agencies, collected and processed jojoba seed from wild jojoba
plants. Many jojoba shrubs were planted after the sperm whale was
placed on the endangered species list, the importation of sperm whale
oil was banned, and scientific evidence suggested that jojoba oil could
replace sperm whale oil in many applications. Jojoba has been
commercially harvested since 1982. At one time, approximately 40,000
acres (16,000 ha) of jojoba were under cultivation. The existing jojoba
industry has relied on continuing private-sector investments [6]. For
information regarding management and cultivation techniques of jojoba as
a crop species refer to [4,6,15,60,62,63] and other references.
A list of phytophagous, predaceous, parasitic, and other insects
associated with jojoba in natural stands is available in the literature
[42].
In San Diego County, California, widespread planting of jojoba has the
potential to destroy sensitive vegetation such as coastal mixed
chaparral and coastal sage scrub communities [39].
Jojoba was very tolerant of browsing near Roosevelt Lake in southern
Arizona. It initiated new twigs from lateral buds to compensate for the
loss of apical buds and twigs from herbivory. Heavily browsed plants
maintained a ratio of photosynthetic biomass to total biomass as high as
unbrowsed plants. However, heavy browsing greatly reduced shrub size
and forage yield. Moderate browsing pressure resulted in forage yields
similar to those of unbrowsed plants. Although browsing reduced shrub
size, browsed plants maintained a water status similar to unbrowsed
plants, even under high water stress. This indicated a comparable
ability to balance transpirational water loss with water uptake through
the roots. Jojoba was tolerant of heavy browsing, but moderate browsing
was recommended to maintain greater shrub size and forage production
[45,46].
BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
SPECIES: Simmondsia chinensis | Jojoba
GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS :
Jojoba is a native, drought-resistant, evergreen shrub that may grow to
10 feet (3 m) or remain as a low mound 8 to 20 inches (20-50 cm) tall
[4,15,18,35]. The form varies in different environments [15]; the more
erect form is generally found on moist sites, whereas the semiprostrate
form is found on desert sites [38]. Several stems arise from the root
crown [15] and branching is profuse [15,18,23]. Younger stems are
pubescent [18,35]. In full light, lateral branching is prolific near
the base. As the plant ages, the lower foliage is shade-pruned and a
high canopy develops [15]. The bark is smooth [18].
The leaves are thick and leathery, and are generally 0.8 to 1.6 inches
(2-4 cm) long [18,23,35]. They are vertically oriented on the plant to
reduce exposure to the sun [29]. Jojoba leaves may be shed during
severe drought [4], but generally live two or three seasons depending on
moisture and shade conditions [4,15]. Jojoba is considered to be
drought-resistant, and plants are physiologically active the entire year
[4].
Jojoba is dioecious [5,15,23,35]. Female flowers are axillary and
usually solitary [4,15,18,38]. They may, however, occur in fascicles
with up to 20 flowers [38]. Male flowers are smaller than female
flowers and are grouped in dense clusters [4,15,18,38]. Pollen is wind
dispersed [15]. Drought is the strongest factor inhibiting the
formation of flower buds [4,15], but cold temperatures may also reduce
flowering. There is generally a burst of flowering following winter and
spring rainfall [15].
Jojoba fruits are dehiscent capsules that are generally one-seeded but
may contain up to three acornlike seeds [5,15,18,23,38]. The seeds are
light brown to black and are large, generally 0.6 to 1.2 inches (1.5-3.0
cm) long [5,15,38]. Approximately 50 percent of jojoba seed consists of
lipids [4,15,38].
Jojoba may have several taproots that develop by forking below the root
crown. The maximum depth of taproots is not known, but taproots have
been observed at depths of 33 feet (10 m). Horizontal root growth does
not occur except where subsurface strata prevent downward growth.
Shallow or subsurface feeder roots and true rhizomes are not developed
[4,15].
The life span of jojoba is over 100 years and may exceed 200 years [4,5,15].
RAUNKIAER LIFE FORM :
Phanerophyte
REGENERATION PROCESSES :
Jojoba is wind pollinated [5,7,38]. Honey bees collect large amounts of
pollen but apparently do not visit female plants [5]. Plants bearing
perfect hermaphroditic flowers are rarely found in certain populations.
Apomyxis does not occur. Pollination and fertilization must take place
to produce fruits with viable seeds [5,38]. Sex ratios in natural
populations are generally equal [5]. Irrigated plants produce fruit in
about 3 years, but a longer period is required before an appreciable
quantity of seeds is produced by plants growing in natural populations
[38]. Seed maturation is complete within 6 to 7 months of fertilization
[15].
The period of flowering, the amount of fruit developed, and the quantity
of seed produced is highly variable from year to year at any given
location [7,15,38,50]. During 3 consecutive years at Puerto Libertad,
Sonora, seed yield ranged from 0 to 448 seeds per plant [7]. Most
capsules split at maturity and release seeds, but they occasionally drop
before opening and slowly disintegrate on the ground. A few capsules
may remain on the plant for an extended period [38]. Seeds are
dispersed by animals and erosion [50]. The seeds remain viable for a
long time [7,15,38]; almost 100 percent germination has been obtained
from seed stored 10 to 12 years in sealed containers kept at 35 degrees
Fahrenheit (1.5 deg C) [38]. The seeds may reside in the soil for many
years before conditions are appropriate for germination [50]. However,
in natural populations many jojoba seeds may be consumed by desert
rodents. Jojoba seeds are high in energy content, large and heavy, and
usually fall directly under the parent plant, all of which increase the
chance for predation. Pocket gophers carry away large numbers of seeds
and deposit them in caves or burrows. Although most of the seeds are
consumed, some seedlings have been observed from abandoned gopher
burrows [7]. However, jojoba produces cyanogenic glycosides as a
defense mechanism [7,59], which may make the seeds inedible to some
desert rodents [7]. Following the period of natural dispersal (August)
at a site in Puerto Libertad, Sonora, the seedbank was totally depleted
within 8 weeks. However, at Santa Rosa, Sonora, only a fraction of the
seeds were lost to predation [7].
Seed polymorphism in jojoba is apparently an important adaptive strategy
against the heterogeneity and unpredictability of the desert
environment. Medium- and large-sized seeds do not have a dormant stage
and germinate readily with adequate rainfall. Small seeds, however,
have a dormant stage and can survive longer. Small seeds have narrower
germination requirements which may allow the individual seeds to
germinate only after suitable conditions are present for a longer period
of time. Germination rates in one experiment were 80 percent, 67
percent, and 46 percent for large, medium, and small seeds,
respectively. Seedling emergence for large- and medium-sized seeds was
significantly (p<.01) higher than for small seeds. Seed size also
determined seedling size. The following growth parameters were measured
for jojoba seedlings 44 days after sowing [21]:
Seed size Root-shoot Percent Mean emergence Leaf area
(mean weight) ratio emergence time in days (cm)
_______________________________________________________________________
Small (436 mg) 0.82:1.00 50.8 24.3 2.74
Medium (760 mg) 1.29:1.00 61.3 18.5 7.14
Large (941 mg) 1.35:1.00 77.1 14.1 12.22
Information on jojoba seed collection, germination, and planting
techniques is available in the literature [15,38].
The critical period for jojoba survival is the seedling stage. Many
years may pass without suitable conditions for germination, and years
when conditions are favorable for seedling establishment are even fewer
[15,61]. Most seedling mortality is caused by physical factors (such as
dry soil and freezing temperatures) with predation only amounting to a
small percentage of deaths [4,7]. Seedlings are very sensitive to harsh
summer weather in their first year [7]. In the Tucson Mountains of
Arizona, 219 recently germinated seedlings were studied from 1974 to
1984 to measure survival and growth. Seedling mortality was 88 percent,
70 percent, and 50 percent for 1-, 2-, and 3-year-old seedlings,
respectively. By the end of third year only four seedlings were living,
all of which were growing on "protected" sites [50]. Seedlings may be
numerous with favorable precipitation, however. A heavy storm in
September 1976 produced 3 inches (760 mm) of rain near Ocotillo,
California, where annual precipitations is generally only 4 inches (100
mm). Later that fall jojoba seedling density was 179 seedlings per
hectare [61]. More male than female seedlings survive the stress of
establishment [4].
Jojoba sprouts from the root crown following damage to stems [8,15].
Thickets may develop as a result of shoot production from deep roots
several feet away from the root crown [15]. Jojoba may also be
propagated from softwood cuttings taken in late spring or early summer
[15,38].
SITE CHARACTERISTICS :
Within its natural range jojoba is found from sea level on the
California coast to lower mountain slopes, pediments, and upper bajada
sites in Arizona [4,15,38]. In the Sonoran Desert jojoba is generally
restricted to sites between 2,000 and 4,000 feet (600-1200 m) elevation
and is lacking over many of the plains and valleys [4,5,15]. Slopes are
usually over 3 percent and often over 30 percent. Jojoba usually is
more abundant on north-facing slopes than south-facing slopes in
southern Arizona [4], and is significantly (p<.05) more abundant on
north-facing pediments than south-facing pediments or arroyo habitats at
Punta Cirio, Sonora [28,53]. Jojoba is mostly limited to well-drained,
coarse desert soils such as sandy alluviums and coarse mixtures of
gravels and clays. These mixtures may be derived from igneous materials
such as granite and other volcanics [4,15]. Soils are usually neutral
to alkaline, high in phosphorous, and subject to annual drying [15].
Calcium carbonate content may also be high, especially in areas adjacent
to mountain ranges with an appreciable content of limestone or
calcareous sandstone [4]. Jojoba can tolerate high levels of salinity,
but its flowering capabilities may be reduced on such sites [13].
Jojoba is climatically adapted to both mesic coastal climates and
continental inland deserts [38]. Growth in natural stands is linked to
winter-spring rains. Jojoba is scattered in areas where annual
precipitation is less than 4 inches (100 mm) [4,5,15]. In those areas,
it may be restricted to sites with perennial runoff such as arroyo
margins [15]. Optimal growth occurs in areas that receive more than 12
to 14 inches (300-350 mm) of rain annually [4,15]. Jojoba reaches
greatest dominance and forms pure stands on rocky slopes and valleys of
the mountains north and east of Phoenix, Arizona, where annual rainfall
is 15 to 18 inches (380-450 mm). Populations on good sites may have
over 200 jojoba plants per acre [15]. Jojoba can tolerate extreme daily
temperature fluctuations. Temperatures of 109 to 114 degrees Fahrenheit
(43-46 deg C) often occur at sites where jojoba is found. Mature jojoba
can tolerate temperatures as low as 15 degrees Fahrenheit (-9 deg C),
but leaf damage may occur. Seedlings are damaged or killed at
temperatures of 15 to 26 degrees Fahrenheit (-9 to -3 deg C) [4,15].
SUCCESSIONAL STATUS :
Facultative Seral Species
Little information is available on the successional status of jojoba.
Gentry [15] stated that jojoba is apparently unable to tolerate closed
communities such as arroyo thickets, extensive creosotebush (Larrea
tridentata) stands, and chaparral. It is normally found growing in full
sunlight. Jojoba seedling establishment is associated with nurse plants
over at least part of its range [50].
SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT :
Seasonal growth and development of jojoba is generally a response to
winter-spring rains. Flowers appear mostly in February and March [15],
but flowering may occur anytime from December to July [23,35,38]. In
the Tucson, Arizona, area jojoba has flowered as early as the first week
in January. Flowering usually begins in late January with peak bloom in
February. The flowering period is usually complete by late February to
mid-March. Populations in the area have been observed to bloom at
different times of the year in response to heavy precipitation [5].
Viable seed may develop regardless of the flowering date [38]. Deep
soil moisture early in the year or previous fall is required for
maximum seed development. Summer rains may help fill out maturing seeds
and prolong their ripening. Seed fall is early in the season if
conditions are dry and hot, but may be late and prolonged. Seed fall
continues over 6 to 7 weeks. Baja California populations generally
mature seed 1 to 2 months earlier than California and Arizona
populations [15].
Most vegetative growth of jojoba occurs in the spring [7].
FIRE ECOLOGY
SPECIES: Simmondsia chinensis | Jojoba
FIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS :
Jojoba readily sprouts from the root crown and/or following fire in
desert shrub and coastal sage scrub communities [8,15,44,58]. Fire may
cause jojoba to take on a thicket or clonal form where shoots develop
from deep sections of the main roots [15]. Seeds may survive fire in
the seedbank if the fire is not too severe, but it is not known if they
germinate well on bare mineral soil. Establishment may be limited after
severe fire by lack of nurse plants.
Fires in the Sonoran Desert are generally rare due to widely spaced
shrubs and sparse cover of grasses and perennial forbs. However, in an
exceptionally wet year annual cover may be dense enough to
carry fire [8,20]. These fires tend to occur at the desert shrub-desert
grassland ecotone [20].
Postfire recovery in interior chaparral and coastal sage scrub
communities is rapid due to the fact that most species, including
jojoba, sprout from the root crown following damage. In coastal sage
scrub the recovery process may take as little as 10 years [40,41].
POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY :
Small shrub, adventitious-bud root crown
FIRE EFFECTS
SPECIES: Simmondsia chinensis | Jojoba
IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT :
Jojoba is probably top-killed by light to moderately severe fire. Even
severe fire may not kill jojoba roots, which can sprout.
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT :
NO-ENTRY
PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE :
Jojoba was "substantially" reduced both in density and cover within 9
months following a controlled fire in June 1981 in Bulldog Canyon near
Phoenix, Arizona. The prefire vegetation was classified as a littleleaf
paloverde-cactus-shrub association. Jojoba showed some resistance to
top-kill, and many plants sprouted vigorously after the fire. Nine
months after the fire, 60 percent of jojoba plants were sprouting and 40
percent were present as adults (not top-killed by fire). On an adjacent
site burned by a wildfire, all jojoba were present as sprouts in
postfire years 1 and 2 [8].
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE :
NO-ENTRY
FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
NO-ENTRY
REFERENCES
SPECIES: Simmondsia chinensis | Jojoba
REFERENCES :
1. Axelrod, Daniel I. 1978. The origin of coastal sage vegetation, Alta and
Baja California. American Journal of Botany. 65(10): 1117-1131. [5563]
2. Bahre, Conrad J.; Bradbury, David E. 1980. Manufacture of mescal in
Sonora, Mexico. Economic Botany. 34(4): 391-400. [2978]
3. Bernard, Stephen R.; Brown, Kenneth F. 1977. Distribution of mammals,
reptiles, and amphibians by BLM physiographic regions and A.W. Kuchler's
associations for the eleven western states. Tech. Note 301. Denver, CO:
U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. 169 p.
[434]
4. Brooks, William H. 1978. Jojoba--a North American desert shrub; its
ecology, possible commercialization, & potential as an introd. into
other arid regions. Journal of Arid Environments. 1: 227-236. [5162]
5. Buchmann, Stephen L. 1987. Floral biology of jojoba (Simmondsia
chinensis), an anemophilous plant. Desert Plants. 8(3): 111-124. [5245]
6. Carlson, Kenneth D.; Knapp, Steven A.; Thompson, Anson E.; [and others].
1992. Nature's abundant variety: new oilseed crops on the horizon. In:
Yearbook of agriculture. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture:
124-133. [23001]
7. Castellanos, A. E.; Molina, F. E. 1990. Differential survivorship and
establishment in Simmondsia chinensis (jojoba). Journal of Arid
Environments. 19: 65-76. [14982]
8. Cave, George Harold, III. 1982. Ecological effects of fire in the upper
Sonoran Desert. Tempe, AZ: Arizona State University. 124 p. Thesis.
[12295]
9. Conrad, C. Eugene. 1987. Common shrubs of chaparral and associated
ecosystems of southern California. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-99. Berkeley, CA:
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest
and Range Experiment Station. 86 p. [4209]
10. Eddy, Thomas A. 1961. Foods and feeding patterns of the collared peccary
in southern Arizona. Journal of Wildlife Management. 25: 248-257.
[9888]
11. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and
Canada. Washington, DC: Society of American Foresters. 148 p. [905]
12. Felger, Richard S.; Moser, Mary Beck. 1974. Seri Indian pharmacopoeia.
Economic Botany. 28: 414-436. [2767]
13. Francois, L. E. 1986. Salinity effects on four arid zone plants. Journal
of Arid Environments. 11: 103-109. [3016]
14. Garrison, George A.; Bjugstad, Ardell J.; Duncan, Don A.; [and others].
1977. Vegetation and environmental features of forest and range
ecosystems. Agric. Handb. 475. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service. 68 p. [998]
15. Gentry, Howard Scott. 1958. The natural history of jojoba (Simmondsia
chinensis) and its cultural aspects. Economic Botany. 12(3): 261-295.
[4917]
16. Goodwin, John G., Jr.; Hungerford, C. Roger. 1977. Habitat use by native
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Index
Related categories for Species: Simmondsia chinensis
| Jojoba
|
 |
