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Wildlife, Animals, and Plants
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Introductory
SPECIES: Symphoricarpos occidentalis | Western Snowberry
ABBREVIATION :
SYMOCC
SYNONYMS :
NO-ENTRY
SCS PLANT CODE :
SYOC
COMMON NAMES :
western snowberry
wolfberry
TAXONOMY :
The currently accepted scientific name of western snowberry is
Symphoricarpos occidentalis Hook. (Caprifoliaceae) [50,57,62,77]. There
are no recognized infrataxa.
LIFE FORM :
Shrub
FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS :
No special status
OTHER STATUS :
NO-ENTRY
COMPILED BY AND DATE :
Lora L. Esser, August 1995
LAST REVISED BY AND DATE :
AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION :
Esser, Lora L. 1995. Symphoricarpos occidentalis. In: Remainder of Citation
DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
SPECIES: Symphoricarpos occidentalis | Western Snowberry
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION :
Western snowberry occurs from British Columbia east to Ontario and south
to Washington, Utah, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Missouri [50,114,127].
It is also found in Michigan [77,114,131]. Western snowberry is most
commonly found in the northern Great Plains [50].
ECOSYSTEMS :
FRES10 White-red-jack pine
FRES11 Spruce-fir
FRES17 Elm-ash-cottonwood
FRES19 Aspen-birch
FRES20 Douglas-fir
FRES21 Ponderosa pine
FRES22 Western white pine
FRES23 Fir-spruce
FRES25 Larch
FRES28 Western hardwoods
FRES29 Sagebrush
FRES35 Pinyon-juniper
FRES36 Mountain grasslands
FRES37 Mountain meadows
FRES38 Plains grasslands
FRES39 Prairie
STATES :
CO ID IL IA KS MI MN MO MT NE
NM ND OK SD UT WA WI WY AB BC
MB ON SK
ADMINISTRATIVE UNITS :
BADL BICA BLCA DETO DINO FOUS
GLAC KNRI PIPE ROMO SCBL WICA
YELL
BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS :
5 Columbia Plateau
6 Upper Basin and Range
8 Northern Rocky Mountains
9 Middle Rocky Mountains
10 Wyoming Basin
11 Southern Rocky Mountains
12 Colorado Plateau
13 Rocky Mountain Piedmont
14 Great Plains
15 Black Hills Uplift
16 Upper Missouri Basin and Broken Lands
KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS :
K011 Western ponderosa forest
K012 Douglas-fir forest
K015 Western spruce-fir forest
K016 Eastern ponderosa forest
K017 Black Hills pine forest
K018 Pine-Douglas-fir forest
K024 Juniper steppe woodland
K037 Mountain-mahogany-oak scrub
K038 Great Basin sagebrush
K050 Fescue-wheatgrass
K055 Sagebrush steppe
K056 Wheatgrass-needlegrass shrubsteppe
K063 Foothills prairie
K064 Grama-needlegrass-wheatgrass
K066 Wheatgrass-needlegrass
K067 Wheatgrass-bluestem-needlegrass
K068 Wheatgrass-grama-buffalograss
K069 Bluestem-grama prairie
K070 Sandsage-bluestem prairie
K074 Bluestem prairie
K075 Nebraska Sandhills prairie
K081 Oak savanna
K093 Great Lakes spruce-fir forest
K095 Great Lakes pine forest
K098 Northern floodplain forest
K101 Elm-ash forest
SAF COVER TYPES :
1 Jack pine
12 Black spruce
15 Red pine
16 Aspen
18 Paper birch
21 Eastern white pine
42 Bur oak
63 Cottonwood
210 Interior Douglas-fir
212 Western larch
213 Grand fir
215 Western white pine
217 Aspen
220 Rocky Mountain juniper
222 Black cottonwood-willow
224 Western hemlock
227 Western redcedar-western hemlock
228 Western redcedar
235 Cottonwood-willow
236 Bur oak
237 Interior ponderosa pine
SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES :
102 Idaho fescue
109 Ponderosa pine shrubland
301 Bluebunch wheatgrass-blue grama
303 Bluebunch wheatgrass-western wheatgrass
304 Idaho fescue-bluebunch wheatgrass
309 Idaho fescue-western wheatgrass
310 Needle-and-thread-blue grama
311 Rough fescue-bluebunch wheatgrass
316 Big sagebrush-rough fescue
401 Basin big sagebrush
402 Mountain big sagebrush
409 Tall forb
411 Aspen woodland
413 Gambel oak
415 Curlleaf mountain-mahogany
416 True mountain-mahogany
421 Chokecherry-serviceberry-rose
422 Riparian
601 Bluestem prairie
602 Bluestem-prairie sandreed
603 Prairie sandreed-needlegrass
606 Wheatgrass-bluestem-needlegrass
607 Wheatgrass-needlegrass
608 Wheatgrass-grama-needlegrass
609 Wheatgrass-grama
613 Fescue grassland
HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES :
Western snowberry occurs in a variety of habitats including grassland,
mixed-grass prairie, shrubland, sagebrush, woodland, and riparian
[2,5,7,21,56,66].
Western snowberry is common in floodplain and riparian habitats. In
Montana western snowberry is found along the floodplain of the
Yellowstone River. Common associates include plains cottonwood (Populus
deltoides var. monilifera), willows (Salix spp.), and Wood's rose (Rosa
woodsii) [2,18]. In Wyoming and Colorado western snowberry is a common
riverine floodplain shrub in plains cottonwood and willow communities
[31,42,90,103]. Associates include peachleaf willow (Salix
amygdaloides), thinleaf alder (Alnus incana ssp. tenuifolia),
chokecherry (Prunus virginiana), and red-osier dogwood (Cornus sericea).
In eastern Montana and western North and South Dakota, western snowberry
is an important species in woodland and riparian draws dominated by
green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica) [21,47]. A green ash/western
snowberry habitat type has been described. Common associates include
American elm (Ulmus americana), boxelder (Acer negundo), silver
buffaloberry (Shepherdia argentea), Saskatoon serviceberry (Amelanchier
alnifolia), American plum (Prunus americana), and chokecherry. In
western Montana western snowberry may form dense ecotonal thickets
around silver buffaloberry stands [54].
A western snowberry shrub community type has been described for Montana,
North Dakota, and Alberta [5,54,55,56]. Western snowberry often forms
dense monotypic stands with little understory. Some common understory
species include rough fescue (Festuca scabrella), Kentucky bluegrass
(Poa pratense), and western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii).
Western snowberry is an important species in native shortgrass and
mixed-grass prairies of the northern Great Plains. In North Dakota
western snowberry is commonly found in shrub-grassland communities
dominated by western wheatgrass, needlegrass (Stipa spp.), blue grama
(Bouteloua gracilis), and little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium)
[7,23,28,82].
In the Black Hills a bur oak (Quercus macrocarpa)/western snowberry
habitat type has been described. Associates include Oregon-grape
(Mahonia repens), red raspberry (Rubus idaeus), American hazel (Corylus
americana), and smooth sumac (Rhus glabra) [1,64].
Western snowberry is found in forested habitats dominated by Douglas-fir
(Pseudotsuga menziesii) and ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) [16,81].
In British Columbia a Douglas-fir/Idaho fescue (Festuca
idahoensis)-western snowberry association is described [81].
In Alberta and Saskatchewan western snowberry is commonly found in
quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides) parkland with rough fescue,
porcupine grass (Stipa spartea), and silverberry (Elaeagnus commutata)
[4,29].
The following publications list western snowberry as a community
dominant:
Classification and management of riparian and wetland sites in
northwestern Montana [19]
Native woodland habitat types of southwestern North Dakota [48]
Classification and management of riparian-wetland shrub sites in Montana
[53]
The vegetation of the Grand River/Cedar River, Sioux, and Ashland
Districts of the Custer National Forest: a habitat type classification [54]
The vegetation of Theodore Roosevelt National Park, North Dakota: a
habitat type classification [55]
Forest vegetation of the Black Hills National Forest of South Dakota and
Wyoming: a habitat type classification [64]
VALUE AND USE
SPECIES: Symphoricarpos occidentalis | Western Snowberry
WOOD PRODUCTS VALUE :
NO-ENTRY
IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE :
Western snowberry is a valuable forage species for mule deer,
white-tailed deer, elk, and pronghorn [2,34,61,80,117]. It is browsed
by white-tailed deer in Montana and constituted 60 percent of
white-tailed deer early winter diets in 1965. Western snowberry was
found in 95 percent of all rumens and averaged 27 percent of rumen
volume year-round [2]. In North and South Dakota western snowberry is
an important browse species in mule deer and pronghorn fall and winter
diets [72,104,141]. In Saskatchewan western snowberry is browsed by
pronghorn and constituted 17 percent of pronghorn diets from October 30
to November 3, 1960 [34].
In Montana, North Dakota, and South Dakota, western snowberry fruits are
eaten by sharp-tailed grouse, passerine birds, and small mammals
[35,39,96,114]. In the northern Great Plains, the fruit of western
snowberry is an important fall and winter food for sharp-tailed grouse
[39]. In Wyoming sharp-tailed grouse feed on western snowberry fruits
[87]. In Alberta snowshoe hares browse western snowberry [93].
In Utah and Idaho western snowberry is important winter forage for
cattle [94,112]. In North Dakota cattle make limited use of western
snowberry [72]. In Nebraska western snowberry is poor forage for cattle
and fair for sheep [117]. In Montana forage production under dense
thickets of western snowberry is low; as stands open up, forage
production increases due to invasion by Kentucky bluegrass [56].
PALATABILITY :
Palatability ratings for western snowberry are as follows [19,35]:
CO MT ND UT WY
cattle fair fair fair poor fair
sheep fair fair fair fair fair
horses fair poor fair poor fair
deer ---- good ---- ---- ----
elk ---- good ---- ---- ----
NUTRITIONAL VALUE :
Western snowberry nutritional values are rated as follows [35]:
UT CO WY MT ND
elk good poor fair fair ----
mule deer good poor fair good fair
white-tailed deer ---- ---- good good fair
pronghorn ---- ---- fair fair fair
upland game birds good ---- good fair fair
waterfowl poor ---- poor ---- poor
small nongame birds fair ---- good fair ----
small mammals good ---- good fair ----
Western snowberry energy rating and protein content are fair [19,35].
In Alberta percent digestible protein of dry matter at leaf stage,
heading stage, and seed ripe stage was 4.0, 1.8, and 1.0, respectively
[14]. In Saskatchewan crude protein content of western snowberry browse
was 7.9 percent in February, 25.1 percent in May, 12.3 percent in June,
10.2 percent in July, and 15.2 percent in September [34].
COVER VALUE :
Western snowberry cover values are rated as follows [19,35]:
CO MT ND UT WY
elk ---- poor fair ---- poor
mule deer ---- fair good fair poor
white-tailed deer poor good ---- ---- fair
pronghorn ---- fair good ---- fair
upland game birds ---- good good good good
waterfowl ---- good fair poor poor
small nongame birds ---- good good good good
small mammals ---- good ---- good good
Dense thickets of western snowberry provide important thermal and hiding
cover for wildlife [56,114,130]. In South Dakota western snowberry
provides cover for wild turkeys [102]. In the northern Great Plains,
western snowberry provides nesting cover for sharp-tailed grouse, upland
waterfowl, and many species of passerine birds [30,51,72,78]. In North
Dakota 68 percent of mallard nests were on sites dominated by western
snowberry [30].
VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES :
Western snowberry adapts well to disturbed or degraded sites [95,114].
It is used for erosion control, wildlife habitat enhancement, and land
reclamation [56,94,130]. Nursery-grown stock and rooted cuttings
readily establish on disturbed sites and once established, western
snowberry is a good soil stabilizer [19,56,95,114]. Western snowberry
is recommended for planting in riparian areas [83,95]. In Colorado
western snowberry is a high priority species for oil shale restoration
[130].
OTHER USES AND VALUES :
Plains Indians used western snowberry for food, implement-making, and
eye disease treatment [94]. Western snowberry is planted as an
ornamental [127].
MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
Western snowberry increases with heavy grazing pressure [7,51,69]. In
North Dakota western snowberry was more abundant on grazed green ash
sites than on adjacent ungrazed sites [47]. At the Central Grasslands
Research Station in North Dakota, 5 years of cattle grazing under
various management strategies and stocking rates did not consistently
alter the structure or composition of western snowberry communities
[72].
Land management practices that promote or maintain sizeable tracts of
western snowberry will favor higher densities and species richness of
passerines [7]. In South Dakota the preservation of western snowberry
thickets will improve wild turkey nesting habitat [135].
Western snowberry is susceptible to insect parasites and root rot fungi
[94]. According to Watson [131], western snowberry is susceptible to
herbicide damage. Western snowberry is effectively controlled with
multiple applications of dicamba plus 2,4-DE [22].
BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
SPECIES: Symphoricarpos occidentalis | Western Snowberry
GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS :
Western snowberry is a native, deciduous, rhizomatous perennial shrub
that forms dense colonies by adventitious shoots from widely spreading
roots and rhizomes [19,50,56,77,130]. In Minnesota colonies from 3.3 to
660 feet (1-200 m) in diameter have been reported [94].
Western snowberry is an erect shrub that grows from 2 to 4 feet (0.6-1.2
m) tall [50,62,130]. Leaves are 0.8 to 2.4 inches (2-6 cm) long and 0.4
to 1.4 inches (1-3.5 cm) wide [50,117]. The berrylike drupe contains 2
nutlets and ripens in the fall [38,112,127]. In Minnesota roots of
western snowberry penetrated to a depth of 5.2 feet (155 cm) in loamy
sand and rhizomes to a depth of 1.2 feet (35 cm) [94].
A study in Minnesota showed that western snowberry stems ranged from 3
to 13 years old, with an average age of 7.2. Rhizomes ranged from 5
to 40 years old, with an average age of 18.9 [94].
RAUNKIAER LIFE FORM :
Phanerophyte
REGENERATION PROCESSES :
Sexual: Western snowberry reproduces by seed [22,35,38]. Seed is
pollinated by insects and dispersed by birds and mammals [38,94]. Seed
may be stored in dry sealed containers at 41 degrees Fahrenheit (5 deg
C) for up to 2 years with moderate loss of viability [127]. The seed is
surrounded by a stony endocarp which may offer some resistance to
germination. Western snowberry has embryo dormancy; an afterripening
period is necessary for adequate germination. Warm stratification at
room temperature for 3 to 4 months followed by cold stratification at 41
degrees Fahrenheit (5 deg C) for 4 to 6 months increases germination
[38,94,127]. In the laboratory a constant temperature of 50 degrees
Fahrenheit (10 deg C) produces a germination rate of 44.1 percent [94].
Vegetative: Western snowberry reproduces vegetatively by root sprouts
and rhizomes [22,68,94]. According to Pelton [94], shoots from rhizomes
are more common than seedlings. Adventitious shoots develop in the
spring and by the end of the first year they reach mature stem height
[94].
SITE CHARACTERISTICS :
Western snowberry is commonly found in riparian areas such as alluvial
floodplain terraces, upland ravines, swale-like depressions, and along
streams and rivers [48,54,56,57,130]. It is also common in open
deciduous woods, open prairies, rocky bluffs, pastures, and along
roadsides [50,62,94,114,127]. Western snowberry grows best on moist
soils with good drainage [18,34,62,112]. It will grow in semishaded
areas and on dry, exposed hillsides [54,114,127]. It grows best on loam
and sandy loam soils, but occurs on clay, clay loam, and gravelly
substrates as well [18,35,50,94,131]. Western snowberry is tolerant of
poorly drained soils and some flooding, but is intolerant of prolonged
flooding and permanently high water tables [54,56].
Elevations for western snowberry are as follows:
feet meters
Colorado 3,500-8,500 1,050-2,550 [35,57]
Montana 1,950-4,000 594-1,200 [56]
North Dakota 800-1,800 240-540 [140]
South Dakota 4,125-7,000 1,250-2,100 [17,92]
Utah 5,030-6,270 1,525-1,900 [34,134]
Wyoming 7,525-9,900 2,280-3,000 [42]
Alberta 2,000-4,685 610-1,420 [4,137]
SUCCESSIONAL STATUS :
Western snowberry is a generally shade intolerant species of sparse
woods, riparian sites, and open areas where there is often evidence of
past disturbance [15,40,79,130,131]. Western snowberry is a pioneer
species following broadcast burning and cattle grazing [8,56,130,131].
In the northern Great Plains western snowberry invades grasslands
[29,58,133]; it also occurs on stable portions of streambanks [20].
Western snowberry is a highly competitive species but can be suppressed
by taller woody plants such as green ash [20,56,130].
In the northern Great Plains, western snowberry forms dense, nearly
impenetrable thickets, often excluding other vegetation [20,56,94,130].
In Minnesota colonies of western snowberry range in size from 3.3 to 6.6
feet (1-2 m) to 165 to 247 feet (50-75 m) in diameter [94].
SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT :
Western snowberry flowering dates are as follows:
Colorado Jun-Aug [35]
Great Plains Jun-Aug [50,114]
Illinois Jun-Aug [49]
Montana June [35]
New Mexico May-July [127]
North Dakota Jun-July [27,35]
Oklahoma May-July [127]
South Dakota Jun-July [39]
Wyoming July [35]
Fruit ripening occurs from August to September in the southwestern
states, and from September to October in the northern Great Plains
[114,127]. Seed dispersal occurs from September into early winter
[116].
FIRE ECOLOGY
SPECIES: Symphoricarpos occidentalis | Western Snowberry
FIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS :
Western snowberry sprouts vigorously from the root crown and rhizomes
following fire [6,47,56,100,105]; stands are usually denser in burned
than in adjacent unburned areas [56]. Spring and fall fires induce
western snowberry sprouting, but frequent fires may reduce cover [59].
Western snowberry probably establishes from off-site seed dispersed by
birds and mammals.
POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY :
Small shrub, adventitious-bud root crown
Rhizomatous shrub, rhizome in soil
Ground residual colonizer (on-site, initial community)
Secondary colonizer - off-site seed
FIRE EFFECTS
SPECIES: Symphoricarpos occidentalis | Western Snowberry
IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT :
Western snowberry is top-killed or killed by severe fires [4,5,60,94].
In the northern Great Plains, "hot" fires in late summer and early fall
have severely burned roots of western snowberry [60]. In Minnesota in a
partially burned colony of western snowberry, all stems were killed and
all stem bases charred. By the fall of the same year, an average of 2.5
sprouts per stem base was observed [94].
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT :
NO-ENTRY
PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE :
Western snowberry sprouts from the root crown following fire [100].
Several studies have reported rapid recovery and postfire increases in
western snowberry densities [5,11,43,100], although decreases have been
reported [3,4,11,45]. In quaking aspen parklands in Alberta, western
snowberry sprouted 2 weeks after spring fire; by 3 months its canopy
cover was greater on burned sites than on control plots [5]. In
Saskatchewan a prescribed fire occurred in October 1976 in native fescue
grassland; western snowberry was top-killed. By postfire year 1,
western snowberry live stem density was similar in burned and unburned
areas [97].
In North Dakota an October 1976 fire burned mixed-grass prairie and
wooded draw plant communities. Average densities (stems/sq m) of
western snowberry in the summers of 1977 and 1978 were higher on burned
than unburned transects in wooded draws [142]:
1977 1978
lower draw-burned 41.2 31.5
upper draw-burned 68.6 38.8
unburned ---- 12.5
In Saskatchewan eight prescribed fires were set from October 1986 to
April 1988 to reduce western snowberry encroachment into native
grassland. Two plots were burned with headfires at each of the
following times: mid-October 1986, mid-October 1987, early May 1987,
and late April 1988; two additional blocks were left as control sites.
All plots were monitored for 4 years after burning. Average western
snowberry stem densities (stems/sq m) were higher on burned than
unburned plots [100]:
growing season control autumn spring standard error
prefire 36 39 38 8.1
postfire year 1 39a* 72ab 122b 14.6
postfire year 2 43a 67ab 111b 12.3
postfire year 3 46 62 95 12.9
postfire year 4 46 57 51 5.5
*Different letters within a year indicate means are significantly
different (P< or =0.05). A similar letter or no letter within a year
indicates means are not significantly different (P> or =0.05)
Western snowberry density was significantly greater on spring-burned
plots than on autumn-burned or control plots.
In Alberta two prescribed burns were conducted on May 8, 1970 and May
11, 1971. Western snowberry was the dominant shrub on unburned sites.
All western snowberry stems were killed by the fires, but plants started
sprouting 2 weeks after fire. Stem densities (stems/sq m) for western
snowberry during three growing seasons following spring 1970 burning
were as follows [5]:
year unburned burned
1970 86 236
1971 65 199
1972 66 170
Western snowberry stem densities increased significantly (P<0.05)
following fire.
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE :
In South Dakota a May 1, 1974 prescribed fire was conducted in native
grassland. Stem density (stems/sq m) and average height (cm) of western
snowberry were reduced following fire. Results were as follows [45]:
prefire postfire
(Ocotber 15, 1973) (June 28, 1974)
stem density 79 55
stem height 61 24
In Alberta early spring burning in fescue grassland was conducted
annually for 24 years. Stem densities (stem/sq m) were 17.8 and 25 in
burned and unburned areas, respectively. Frequency and cover of western
snowberry in July 1976 after the last fire were as follows [3,4]:
frequency (%) cover (%)
unburned 56 31
burned 52 2
Western snowberry canopy cover declined greatly on burned sites, but
frequency and stem density did not change significantly.
In Minnesota prescribed spring fires were conducted annually from 1983
to 1987. Western snowberry shoot height decreased from 3.3 to 1.6 feet
(1-0.5 m) on burned sites [11].
FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
In the absence of fire, western snowberry has become the dominant native
shrub on mixed-grass prairies in the northern Great Plains [111].
Annual burning may restrict expansion of western snowberry colonies onto
native prairie grasslands, whereas periodic burning may enhance the
spread of western snowberry [5,60,94,100]. Periodic burning could
create even-aged, youthful stands of western snowberry, which may be
more productive of wildlife forage and provide better cover [100].
In North Dakota two prescribed fires in mid-June 1982 and 1984
top-killed most western snowberry. Unburned vegetation ("skips") within
burn areas mostly occurred in dense patches of western snowberry.
Gadwalls started nesting in these "skips" 4 days after the burns, where
dead stems of western snowberry were still standing [75].
REFERENCES
SPECIES: Symphoricarpos occidentalis | Western Snowberry
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Index
Related categories for Species: Symphoricarpos occidentalis
| Western Snowberry
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