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Wildlife, Animals, and Plants |
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INTRODUCTORY
ABBREVIATION:JUNCOM SYNONYMS:
Juniperus communis spp. alpina (Smith) Celakovsky [135] NRCS PLANT CODE:
JUCO6 COMMON NAMES:
common juniper TAXONOMY:The currently accepted scientific name of common juniper is Juniperus communis L. (Cupressaceae) [45,47,54,67,135,136,]. A number of varieties have been described. At least 150 common names, based primarily on the naming of clones as varieties, have been given to common juniper [48]. Commonly recognized North American varieties include:
Juniperus communis var. depressa Pursh [33,47,67,103,136,137] LIFE FORM:Tree, shrub FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS:No special status OTHER STATUS:Common juniper is listed as a species of state concern in South Carolina [119]. Juniperus communis var. depressa is state-ranked as extremely rare in Virginia [133]. AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION:Tirmenstein, D. (1999, November). Juniperus communis. In: Remainder of Citation DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION:Common juniper is possibly the most widely distributed tree in the world [78]. This circumboreal species occurs across North America, Europe, northern Asia and Japan [78,88]. Common juniper is almost completely circumpolar within the exception of a gap in the Bering Sea region [65]. It is widespread in North America beyond the northern limit of trees, occurring from western Alaska and British Columbia to Newfoundland, Greenland, and Iceland [78,88]. Common juniper extends southward through New England to the Carolinas and westward through northeastern Illinois, Indiana, northern Ohio, Minnesota, and Nebraska to the western mountains of Washington, California, Arizona, and New Mexico [47,56,78,88]. Distribution of North American varieties is as follows [47,56,78,88,136,63]: Juniperus communis var. depressa northeastern North America, Idaho, Montana, the Great Plains, and Great Basin; found up to the low arctic in eastern North America Juniperus communis var. montana high-northern latitudes, circumboreal [45] ECOSYSTEMS:
FRES11 Spruce-fir STATES:
BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS:Common juniper is a native, evergreen shrub or columnar tree [78,136]. Throughout most of North America, common juniper most often grows as a low, decumbent mat-forming shrub reaching up to 4.9 feet (1.5 m) in height and 7.6 to 13.1 feet (2-4 m) across [47,123]. In parts of New England common juniper occasionally grows up to 25 feet (7.6 m) in height, and a treelike growth form is reportedly common in Europe [78]. Height at maturity can range from 2 to 50 feet (0.6-15.3 m) [66]. At polar limits, common juniper grows as a dwarf shrub in forest tundra [65]. The bark of common juniper is thin, shreddy or scaly, often exfoliating into thin strips [56,123]. Twigs tend to be yellowish or green when young but turn brown and harden with age [47,123]. Leaves are simple, stiff and arranged in whorls of 3 [56,123]. Younger leaves tend to be more needlelike whereas mature leaves are scalelike [88]. Male strobili are sessile or stalked, and female strobili are made up of green, ovate or acuminate scales [123]. Berrylike cones are red at first, ripening to a glaucous bluish-black [66]. Morphological characteristics including growth form differ somewhat according to variety. General botanical characteristics by variety are as follows [56,75,123,136]:
Juniperus communis var. depressa - rarely greater than 3 feet (1 m) tall Individuals can live for more than 170 years [31]. RAUNKIAER LIFE FORM:Phanerophyte REGENERATION PROCESSES:Common juniper is typically dioecious but occasionally monoecious [128]. Seed usually matures during the second growing season [56,123,126,136], although there have been some reports of cones maturing within only one season [128]. Common juniper produces large cone crops at irregular intervals [66]. Cones are ovoid to ellipsoid [123] and contain 1 to 3 seeds [56,128]. Germination rates for common juniper seed are relatively poor and defective seed may also be relatively common. Pack [97] reported that up to 60% of common juniper seeds examined were defective. In northwestern Quebec, the majority of seeds produced by "older" plants (94.8%) were non-viable. A majority of seeds produced by "younger" plants (80%) were viable. Approximately 40 to 60% of "older" plants were sterile [31]. Under harsh conditions, female plants may decrease reproductive efforts and less viable seed is produced [83]. Germination and seedling establishment of common juniper is "difficult" [31,60]. Ideal germination conditions are moist, compact soil with sufficient oxygen diffusion [31]. Germination has been reported to range from 7 to 75%, depending on the specific treatment and seed source [66]. Juniper seeds have a semipermeable and thick seedcoat with a dormant embryo [97]. Common juniper seed requires a period of warm temperatures followed by a period of cold temperatures lasting approximately 7 months [31]. Generally the germination rate of seeds that are not afterripened is only around 1% [97]. High temperatures, alternating temperatures, freezing and thawing, removal of the seedcoat, or the application of hydrogen peroxide, dilute acids, carbon dioxide, or light had little influence on the germination of juniper seeds. Steele and Geier-Hayes [121] report that common juniper seed is dispersed by animals and not stored in the soil. However, Major and Pyott [80] report that common juniper seed persists in cropped soils in California. Seeds of common juniper are dispersed by gravity, water, birds, or mammals. Digestive processes apparently do not harm most juniper seeds and may actually enhance germination [8,37]. Birds are the most important dispersal agents of common juniper [31]. More than 60 to 85% of common junipers present in the sand dune region surrounding Lake Michigan are believed to have originated from bird-disseminated seed. Birds also contribute to the spread of common juniper into old fields of New England [101]. Rosen [109] reports that domestic sheep may also serve as a dispersal agent since junipers are often associated with sheep driveways. Strong winter winds can push seeds across frozen snow cover [109]. Increases observed in seedling numbers during certain periods are the result of favorable conditions for establishment. Establishment is more likely in open spaces between older shrubs and may be favored by grazing [109]. Common juniper does not sprout after foliage is removed. However, adventitious root development can occur when branches come in contact with the ground become buried. In the subarctic, plants are often buried at least partially, and production of adventitious roots may aid in water and nutrient intake. A higher proportion of common juniper cuttings from northern populations rooted as compared with southern cuttings. Cuttings from female shrubs may exhibit better rooting potential than cuttings from male plants [63]. SITE CHARACTERISTICS:Common juniper can grow on a wide range of sites. It grows on dry, open, rocky, wooded hillsides, sand terraces, maritime escarpments, and on exposed slopes and plateaus throughout its range [18,31,47,50,123]. Common juniper grows along dunes or on dune heath in coastal areas of the Northeast and inland along the Great Lakes [23,101]. It has spread into abandoned fields and pastures in New England [101] and the upper Midwest during the past century. In the southeast it is found on isolated mountains [2]. This species grows on a variety of soil types including acidic and calcareous sands, loams, or marls [9]. It is tolerant of ultramafic soils [85]. In much of Europe common juniper is restricted to well-aerated soils somewhat deficient in both nitrogen and phosphorus. Growth on different soil types is rated as follows [32]: gravel: fair to poor organics: fair to poor sand: fair to good acidic: fair sandy-loam: good saline: fair to poor loam: good sodic: poor clay loam: fair to poor sodic-saline: poor clay: fair to poor dense clay: poorThe following elevational ranges have been reported for common juniper [54,136]: 6,230 to 11,148 feet (1900-3400 m) in CA 4,500 to 9,000 feet (1373-2745 m) in MT 5,295 to 11,065 feet (1615-3375 m) in UT 6,000 to 11,300 feet (1830-3955 m) in WY Juniperus communis var. depressa grows in crevices in heath mats in Michigan and on nutrient-poor open habitats such as sand dunes or rocky outcrops in the Canadian subarctic [22,63]. SUCCESSIONAL STATUS:Common juniper is intolerant of shade and is usually found in open environments [31]. Common juniper is often regarded as a colonizing plant but reaches maximum abundance on harsh, stressed environments in which competition is lacking [31,107]. Common juniper occurs as an important understory species in a number of climax communities within the southern Rocky Mountains including some Douglas-fir, subalpine fir, limber pine, Engelmann spruce, and blue spruce stands [6,91,122]. Common juniper becomes prominent in many high-elevation spruce-fir forests in Colorado as much as 100 years or more after fire or other disturbance [21]. In the boreal forest of eastern Canada, however, common juniper begins to decline after approximately 70 years after disturbance. On harsh open sites, it can persist for much longer which creates patchy habitats [31]. Common juniper is described as a seral species in common juniper/bearberry (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi) communities of the southwestern Yukon where it is ultimately replaced by spruce (Picea spp.) and buffaloberry (Shepherdia canadensis) [34]. In Arizona and Colorado, common juniper is prominent in seral stands with Oregon-grape [36] and in the northern Rocky Mountains, it occurs in late seral stands in Douglas-fir/ninebark (Physocarpos malvaceus) and Douglas-fir/Rocky Mountain maple (Acer glabrum) habitat types [121]. It is prominent in old-field or "early settlement" communities of New England, but it "disappears" from areas maintained in timber [39,40]. In pitch pine (Pinus rigida) communities of New England, common juniper replaces initial colonizers such as lichens, blueberries (Vaccinium spp.), and grasses, and is in turn, replaced later in succession by pitch pine [87]. In black spruce communities of northern Saskatchewan, common juniper is most prevalent in secondary successional stages occurring from 11 to 30 years after disturbance [113]. In Michigan, common juniper is a colonizer on dune blowouts [96]. SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT:Common juniper begins leader elongation in the spring. "Flowering" or cone development dates vary somewhat according to geographic location, but cone development generally occurs from April through June [47,56,66]. Generalized cone development dates by state are as follows [32]: State Beginning End of
cone cone
development development
Montana April May
North Dakota April May
Wyoming April May
Strobili form during June or July, and these
structures fuse, generally during the 2nd year, to produce
a berrylike cone [123]. Cones ripens from August through October of the 2nd or,
more rarely, 3rd year. Cones generally remain on the
plant for at least 2 years [66], with dispersal occurring in
August of the second season [126]. In the Canadian subarctic,
cones are initiated in autumn and open the following year when
pollination occurs. Male strobili are
shed while the female cones are enlarging and fertilization occurs
during the 2nd year. Seeds mature
during the 3rd year [63].
FIRE ECOLOGYFIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS:Common juniper is generally described as "susceptible" to fire [25,59]. It is described as being "not equipped with fire-surviving regeneration properties" [81]. Foliage is resinous and very flammable [31]. The degree of damage received increases with progressively greater fire severity. In eastern Canada, older common juniper often survive fires of low severity. Some fire regimes allow common juniper to survive several fires [31]. Where common juniper is killed by fire, some seeds may survive in the soil on-site and germinate when conditions become favorable. Other seed is brought to the site by bird [25] or, less commonly, mammal dispersers. These factors contribute to slow postfire reestablishment on many sites. For information on fire regimes in forest and woodland communities where common juniper occurs, see the FEIS species summaries on dominant tree species including: species fire return interval interior ponderosa pine 2-45 years (P. ponderosa var. scopulorum) Rocky Mountain juniper ( J. scopulorum) lodgepole pine 25-300 years (P. contorta) quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides) big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY:
FIRE EFFECTS
IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT:Common juniper is generally killed or seriously damaged by fire [24,25]. Patchy fires may allow individual plants to survive in protected areas such as on rocky cliffs. More rarely, portions of a lightly-burned plant may survive. The amount of damage this species incurs increases with increasing fire severity [120]. In the boreal forest of Quebec, at least 37% of common junipers survived fire. Although the dominant fire regime here is crown fires or "important surface fires covering large areas," common juniper often survives on sites made up of exposed bedrock or where protected by lakes and island complexes. Survival can occur if fire affects only part of an area or where fires are of low intensity. In some cases, fires of low intensity "can allow sections of the plant to survive and reproduce vegetatively" [31]. DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT:In a Scottish study, common juniper was killed by 1,472 oF (800 oC) heat treatment when heath was burned. Plants made only "feeble regrowth" when burned at 1,112 oF (600 oC). However, following treatment at 752 oF (400 oC), new shoots were produced [82]. PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE:Common juniper does not sprout after disturbance. Surviving individuals serve as sources of seed for adjacent areas. Postfire regeneration is more frequent in proximity to existing populations of common junipers [31]. Regrowth can generally take place after fire if some of the basal branches remain alive [82], which only occurs in fires of low severity or where spread is patchy. Common juniper also reestablishes after fire through off-site seed dispersed by birds or mammals. Poor seed dispersal from existing stands along with low germination rates can explain why some favorable sites are not readily occupied by common juniper [31]. It is possible that seed protected by overlying soil can survive at least some fires. After low-severity fires, some seed may germinate. However, Mallik and Gimingham [82] observed that high temperatures did not increase germination in common juniper seed and little seed germinated after fire. DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE:Following "light" (less than 50% litter reduction) fires in forested areas of western Montana, burned sites often exhibit minimal shrub damage and have at least some surviving common juniper [120]. Common juniper averaged 6.7% cover 3 years after a light burn in Montana [120]. Laboratory heating experiments on common juniper plants from Scottish heath showed that growth could take place after heating only if some of the basal green branches remain alive [82]: effect of temperature* on vegetative regrowth after heating
400oC 600oC 800oC
mean # sprouts per plant
3 months after treatment 5 4 0
height of veg. regrowth (cm)
17 months after treatment 8 6 0
oven-dry biomass per plant of
veg. regrowth (grams) 3 0.8 0
17 months after treatment
*"temperature maintained for about 2 minutes"
Most fires kill common juniper [25], leading to the
slow postfire recovery typical of this species. In northern
Canada, common juniper is generally absent from burned areas, but
may grow in small refugia within burned areas [69].
Postfire recovery of common juniper is generally slow. The following table gives the density and frequency of occurrence for common juniper in stands of different ages in 2 Colorado forest types [21]: Stand Spruce Freq. Stand Lodgepole Freq.
age -fir age density
after density after
fire fire
-----------------------------------------------
1 --- --- 1 --- ---
2 --- --- 2 --- ---
8 --- --- 8 --- ---
8 0.2 20 8 --- ---
18 0.2 20 18 0.2 20
74 2.7 70 18 0.8 20
200 0.2 8 18 0.4 20
280 0.6 40 45 0.8 40
290 0.4 20 85 2.0 100
85 0.8 60
108 0.6 60
115 0.4 40
190 1.4 60
248 0.8 20
251 1.3 30
257 3.4 85
FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS:In a north-central Colorado study of fire behavior in quaking aspen stands, common juniper patches burned more intensely and released more heat than adjacent herbaceous areas. A caloric analysis of 5 foliage samples yielded an average low heat content of 5064 kcal/kg. Common juniper fuels tended to be deeper and heavier than herbaceous fuels and flames were longer and deeper in common juniper patches. Fire removed almost all litter, standing herbs, and common juniper foliage, leaving only bare branches. The moisture of green common juniper foliage averaged 112% of oven dry weight on 2 burns [117]. Fuel loading for common juniper can be estimated as follows: branch load (kg/m2) = .000191* crown height above duff (cm) ** 2.135 foliage load (kg) = 6.456* crown volume (m3) ** 1.93In xeric red pine (Pinus resinosa) communities of northern Canada, an understory of low sweet blueberry (Vaccinium angustifolium), lichen, and common juniper creates a low and discontinuous fuel load. Fires in these communities tend to have an irregular pattern of intensity that is largely dependent on the distribution of fine fuels. Intense crown fires are unlikely here [11]. FIRE CASE STUDIES
CASE NAME:Colorado aspen burn REFERENCE:
Smith, J. K.; Laven, R. D.; Omi, P. N. 1985 [116] SEASON/SEVERITY CLASSIFICATION:fall/low STUDY LOCATION:Miner's Road and Swamp Creek sites were located in north-central Colorado. PREFIRE VEGETATIVE COMMUNITY:Quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides) communities were characterized by an understory of herbaceous vegetation and common juniper (Juniperus communis). Common herbaceous species included western yarrow (Achillea millefolium), sedges (Carex spp.), Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis, strawberry (Fragaria ovalis), northern bedstraw (Galium boreale), Letterman needlegrass (Achnatherum lettermanii), dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) and mountain thermopsis (Thermopsis divaricarpa). PLANT SPECIES PHENOLOGICAL STATE:Herbaceous vegetation was cured. Quaking aspen leaves had fallen. SITE DESCRIPTION:Weather conditions were described as follows: site dry bulb relative wind wind 10-hr fuel
(oC) humidity speed direction moisture
(%) (km/hr) (%)
MR1 12 25 10 SE 10.5
MR2 11 33 4 SE 10.5
MR3 13 23 7 W 10.6
SC2 17 15 3 SW 9.6
Common juniper clumps covered 20 to 22% of the area on
each study site. Preburn fuels measured on 1 m2 plots covered
only with common juniper were as follows [117]:
MR1-2 MR3 fuel depth (cm) 32(+/-7) 46(+/-10) duff load (kg/m2) 3.52(+/-1.13) 3.01(+/-1.28) fine fuel load (kg/m2)* 1.01(+/-0.53) 1.54(+/-0.54) down woody fuels (kg/m2) 1.06(+/-1.53) 1.88(+/-2.82) *mainly common juniper foliage FIRE DESCRIPTION:Site Name (abbreviation) Burn Date Ignition time Miner's Road 1 (MR1) October 19, 1981 14:35 MST Miner's Road 2 (MR2) October 19, 1981 15:27 MST Miner's Road 3 (MR3) November 4, 1981 12:00 MST Swamp Creek (SC2) November 17, 1981 13:00 MST Burn severity varied by plot. site % of sample median estimated %
plots burned fraction of site
burned burned
MR1 67 0.55 37
MR2 60 0.30 18
MR3 100 0.99 99
SC2 100 0.90 90
Less than one half of MR1 and MR2 burned. Nearly all of MR3 and SC2
burned.
Fire behavior was more severe in juniper clumps than in herbaceous vegetation. Fire behavior measured over the entire burns, with both common juniper and herbaceous cover, was as follows: min. max. estimated mean
Fire behavior
rate of spread (m/min) 0.4 4.0 1.3
flame length (cm) 10.2 152.4 43.4
flaming zone depth (cm) 5.1 152.44 42.4
total heat release(kcal/m2) 1491 19544 6326
Fire behavior measured only in common juniper clumps was as follows:
average MR1-2 MR3 flame length* 86 62 flaming zone depth* 45 44 total heat release* 8300(+/-4326) 14021(+/-3420) *significantly greater than on plots with herbaceous cover FIRE EFFECTS ON PLANT SPECIES:Juniper was killed by fire. FIRE MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS:Flames were longer in juniper than in herbaceous cover and more fuel was consumed on juniper plots. Burned out juniper plots produced more aspen suckers than corresponding herbaceous plots. More heat may have penetrated the soil in juniper areas. Irradiance increases were especially noticeable in areas were juniper clumps had burned. Juniperus communis: References1. Achuff, Peter L. 1989. Old-growth forests of the Canadian Rocky Mountain national parks. Natural Areas Journal. 9(1): 12-26. [7442] 2. Adams, Robert P. 1986. Geographic variation in Juniperus silicicola & J. virginiana of the southeastern U.S.: multivariate analyses of morphology & terpenoids. Taxon. 35(1): 61-75. [19792] 3. Alexander, Robert R. 1986. 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