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Wildlife, Animals, and Plants |
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VALUE AND USE
WOOD PRODUCTS VALUE:Interior ponderosa pine is the most commercially valuable and productive timber tree in the inland west and Southwest [46,125]. High-quality logs are used for high-grade boards and a wide variety of other products including cabinets, molding, and cut stock. Lower-quality logs are used for dimension lumber and other construction products [46]. IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE:Interior ponderosa pine communities are important wildlife habitat. The forest understory provides valuable browsing and grazing for wildlife and livestock [99,100,288,291,293]. Wildlife also use interior ponderosa pine woodland-grassland mosaics heavily. Wooded draws of interior ponderosa pine in the high plains grasslands of the Dakotas and Nebraska provide valuable habitat for a variety of wildlife [42]. Birds: Interior ponderosa pine communities are critical habitat for a wide variety of birds [30,37,118] including owls [111,118,166], other cavity nesters, and wild turkey [244]. Cavity-nesting birds use interior ponderosa pine snags for foraging and roosting as well as nesting [30,97]. Balda [30] estimated that secondary cavity nesters comprised 68% of the total density of wintering birds in southwestern ponderosa pine forests. Cunningham and others [81] provide a list of secondary cavity nesters on the Coconino National Forest of Arizona. They recommend a density of 5.2 interior ponderosa pine snags per hectare to sustain habitat for cavity-nesting birds. Bennetts and Hawksworth [37] found that bird diversity and number of nests observed in interior ponderosa pine stands in northern Colorado were positively correlated with interior ponderosa pine's level of infestation with southwestern pine dwarf-mistletoe (Arceuthobium vaginatum ssp. cryptopodum). Western tanagers, American robins, chipping sparrows, hermit thrush, and Cassin's finches nested in witch's brooms. Among guilds, number of insectivores, canopy, foliage, and ground omnivores, and ground granivores species was significantly higher in infected stands, while flycatchers and nectivores showed no significant effect due to level of stand infection. In northern Arizona, Dwyer [97] found that in postfire years 1 and 2, secondary cavity-nesters were more abundant in unburned, light-, and moderate-severity wildfire sites compared to sites that experienced severe wildfire. She attributed the difference to lack of suitable interior ponderosa pine snags on the severe burn. Secondary cavity-nesters used the severe burn when artificial nest boxes were attached to burned snags. In the short term, light and moderate wildfire promoted mountain bluebird and had little effect on pygmy nuthatches, white-breasted nuthatches, and violet-green swallows. Moderate wildfire had a short-term negative effect on mountain chickadees. Other studies [167,284] have shown that mountain chickadees increase or return to prefire numbers 3 to 5 years after fire. Interior ponderosa pine provides roosting, nesting, and foraging habitat for the Mexican spotted owl. The mixed-conifer, interior ponderosa pine, and interior ponderosa pine/Gambel oak types provide optimal habitat for the owl, which is federally listed as threatened [119]. Ganey and Balda [117] found that for roosting habitat, Mexican spotted owls in northern Arizona preferred closed-canopy, virgin stands of mixed conifers with a high density of snags and large logs. The owls preferred both interior ponderosa pine and mixed-conifer old growth forests for foraging. A study on the Coconino National Forest showed the owls preferentially selected nest sites in areas with 41 to 70% canopy closure [127]. Fiedler and Cully [111] provide tree basal area and age class silvicultural prescriptions that optimize Mexican spotted owl habitat and promote old-growth interior ponderosa pine. The flammulated owl, a cavity nester, is also dependent on old-growth interior ponderosa pine forest, but favors a more open canopy for nesting and foraging than the Mexican spotted owl [166]. Reintroduced and rare in southeastern Arizona, thick-billed parrots are ecologically dependent on Chihuahua and southwestern ponderosa pines for food and shelter. Pine seeds are their primary diet item, and the parrots nest in pine snag cavities [267]. Small mammals: Interior ponderosa pine provides habitat for many rodent species, and the seeds are an important food source for some rodents and shrews [124,180]. Tree squirrels (Sciurus and Tamiasciurus spp.) use interior ponderosa pine for nesting, and the seeds are among their most important foods. Abert's squirrel is ecologically dependent upon southwestern ponderosa pine [105,107,179,266]. Red squirrels beyond the range of Abert's squirrel use interior ponderosa pine heavily for food and nesting. Where ranges of the 2 squirrels overlap, Abert's squirrels tend to displace red squirrels to higher-elevation forests [107]. Deer: Interior ponderosa pine communities provide valuable deer habitat. Their understories provide forage; production is highest in open stands. A study on the Apache-Sitgreaves National Forest of Arizona showed mean production of mule deer forage in interior ponderosa pine-Douglas-fir-southwestern white pine was 82 pounds/acre (92 kg/ha) at 50 feet2/acre (11 m2/ha) basal area and 4 pounds/acre (4.5 kg/ha) at 400 feet2/acre (90 m2/ha) basal area [288]. The tree itself provides minor browse [294]. White-tailed deer on Missouri River bottomlands of north-central Montana consumed interior ponderosa pine in trace amounts during fall. In winter, browsing frequency increased to 33%, comprising 2% of total volume intake. White-tailed deer were not detected browsing interior ponderosa pine in spring or summer [9]. PALATABILITY:Interior ponderosa pine is unpalatable to domestic livestock. Cattle generally browse interior ponderosa pine seedlings only when herbaceous forage is scarce [170,294]. When herbaceous vegetation is sparse, however, livestock may browse interior ponderosa pine enough to slow or stop interior ponderosa pine seedling recruitment [213]. Pregnant cows that consume large amounts of interior ponderosa pine needles show an increased incidence of abortion and other reproductive anomalies [311]. Interior ponderosa pine is not highly palatable to wild ungulates either, but they generally prefer interior ponderosa pine to associated conifer species [170]. Wild ungulate use of interior ponderosa pine is mostly seasonal, with heaviest use occurring in winter and spring [82,160,170]. White-tailed deer in the Black Hills of South Dakota did not use interior ponderosa pine during July to September but browsed trees from October to December. Use was lowest from January to March, and highest from April to June [159]. Rodents and lagomorphs browse seedlings year-round [82]. Common porcupines consume the phloem of mature interior ponderosa pine; Abert's squirrels consume the seed, bud, and twigs as well as the phloem. Palatability of the phloem varies among trees within a stand, with both rodent species preferring trees with relatively low monoterpene concentrations. Common porcupines also prefer trees infected with southwestern pine dwarf-mistletoe to uninfected trees [199]. NUTRITIONAL VALUE:Interior ponderosa pine near Flagstaff, Arizona, comprised 6% of the mule deer diet. Chemical content (%) of interior ponderosa pine leaves and buds was follows [294]:
COVER VALUE:Interior ponderosa pine snags provide sites for cavity-nesting birds and mammals. A study on the Coconino National Forest of Arizona determined that an average of 2.6 ponderosa pine snags per acre (6.5/ha) was needed to maintain woodpecker (Picidae) populations. The most frequently used snags were trees that had been dead at least 6 years and were 16 inches (41 cm) or more dbh [13]. Cunningham and others [81] recommend a density of 5.2 interior ponderosa pine snags per hectare to sustain habitat for cavity-nesting songbirds on the Coconino. Mule deer in Colorado use open-canopy interior ponderosa pine/grassland habitat for feeding. Their foraging activity decreases as canopy cover increases [188]. On the Missouri River Breaks of Montana, interior ponderosa pine-Rocky Mountain juniper/bluebunch wheatgrass communities comprised the single most important mule deer summer feeding grounds compared to grassland, shrub, and Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir types. Mule deer also used interior ponderosa pine/longleaf wormwood communities for summer foraging, and for year-round escape and bedding cover. Elk used interior ponderosa pine-Rocky Mountain juniper/bluebunch wheatgrass communities moderately for summer feeding and extensively for summer bedding. Over 3 years, overall elk use of the type was moderate, with elk use peaking during a year of high forb production [206]. Interior ponderosa pine provides shade and resting cover. Amstrup [11] found that pronghorn in south-central Montana and north-central Wyoming used upland ponderosa pine woodlands significantly more than expected (p<0.05) during summer, while use did not differ from expected in other seasons. He often saw 12 or more pronghorn crowded within the shade of pine clumps during hot summer afternoons. Elk in the Black Hills of South Dakota sought interior ponderosa pine stands with 54% or more canopy closure during the summer months [216]. VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES:As a valuable wildlife and commercial timber tree, interior ponderosa pine is widely planted on erodable and other disturbed sites including burns. Artificial regeneration is often difficult due to droughty soils and competition from other vegetation. Heidmann [153] provides regeneration strategies for ponderosa pine. Some exotic herbs that are commonly planted for rehabilitation may interfere with growth of interior ponderosa pine seedlings. Artificial interior ponderosa pine regeneration planted north of Flagstaff showed no significant difference (p < 0.05) in height and stem diameter on plots seeded to native blue grama or bottlebrush squirreltail and then weeded of other species compared to control plots kept free of all species but interior ponderosa pine; however, interior ponderosa pine seedlings on plots seeded with the exotics small burnet (Sanguisorba minor), yellow sweetclover (Melilotus officinalis), orchard grass (Dactylis glomerata), or desert wheatgrass (Agropyron desertorum) were significantly shorter than seedlings on control plots or plots planted to the native grasses. Seedlings planted with yellow sweetclover or desert wheatgrass were significantly smaller in girth compared to those on weeded plots or plots seeded to other herbaceous species [103]. OTHER USES AND VALUES:Interior ponderosa pine is valued as a drought-resistant ornamental [65]. It is widely planted for windbreaks, especially on the plains grasslands [56,237]. Native Americans ate interior ponderosa pine seeds and the sweet, edible phloem in the inner bark [149,150]. The Cheyenne of Montana applied interior ponderosa pine pitch inside whistles and flutes to improve the instruments' tone. They made blue dye from a root extract [150]. The Nez Perce used the pitch as a torch fuel; the Nez Perce and Crow also used pitch as glue [149]. MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS:Interior ponderosa pine ecosystems are under considerable stress, both from natural and anthropogenic factors including past management practices. Pests and diseases: | Interior Ponderosa Pine Southwestern pine dwarf-mistletoe is the most damaging disease agent of interior ponderosa pine south of Wyoming [151,198]. Infection rates in the Southwest have reached 33% [198], and about 20% of interior ponderosa pine on the Colorado Front Range is infected. Stands that have had partial cuts or mountain pine beetle attacks are most susceptible to dwarf-mistletoe infections. New stands that have regenerated after stand-replacing fire are least likely to become infected [6]. Dwarf-mistletoes (Arceuthobium spp.) and interior ponderosa pine do not co-occur north of Colorado because the northern interior continental climate is inhospitable to dwarf-mistletoe growth [7,50]. At least 59 species of insects attack interior ponderosa pine. The mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae) is the most serious pest in the Black Hills and the central and southern Rocky Mountains; D. adjunctus is a closely related pine beetle that damages trees in the Southwest. Pine beetle epidemics have occurred throughout recorded history. Epidemic outbreaks are usually associated with large (> 6-inch (15 cm) diameter), stressed tress in overcrowded stands [7,50]. Pine engraver beetles (Ips spp.) are usually secondary infesters in the central and southern Rocky Mountains but are often more damaging than pine beetles in the Southwest [7,224].p; The most serious wood-decaying fungi are red rot and western gall rust. Shoestring root rot occasionally infects pole-sized and younger trees [7]. Armillaria (Armillaria spp.) is a serious fungal pathogen in the Black Hills and New Mexico [152]. Management and harvesting guidelines to minimize infection are available [6,7,152]. Age classes and stand structure: | Interior Ponderosa Pine Interior ponderosa pine is rapidly losing its oldest age class. Mortality of old-growth interior ponderosa pine is high due to increased interference from dense postsettlement trees and stagnated nutrient cycling in the absence of fire. For example, mortality rate of old-growth interior ponderosa pine on the Fort Valley Experimental Forest of Arizona increased 7-fold from the 1930s level (0.75 tree/ha/decade) to the 1970s (5.75 trees/ha/decade) [211]. Changes to interior ponderosa pine and mixed-conifer forests due to fire exclusion are discussed in the Fire Ecology section of this report. Range: | Interior Ponderosa Pine Open stands of interior ponderosa pine produce more forage than dense stands. Periodic surface fire promotes grass production by reducing shrubs and pine litter, which retard graminoid production. Postfire increases in forage production last about 5 to 10 years. Other benefits of range fires include better livestock distribution and range utilization, increased water yield, and improved wildlife habitat. Forage productivity varies with understory, with blue grama understories generally the least productive and Arizona fescue and screwleaf muhly the most productive [225]. Stands of large-diameter trees in a patchy distribution help maintain graminoid diversity [68,222]. Overstory thinning increased production in the grass and forb understory on the Coconino National Forest. Herbage production was significantly* greater (p=0.10) on plots thinned to basal areas of less than 70 ft2/acre (16.3 m2/ha) compared to unthinned plots with similar basal areas. Herbage production 6 years after treatment was as follows [68]:
Cattle and elk use is inversely proportional to tree basal area [69,70]. On thinned interior ponderosa pine sites in Arizona, elk preferred sites where some alligator juniper was left to sites where it had been completely removed. Mule deer showed no preference for thinned vs. unthinned areas, but tended to congregate on sites with alligator juniper, southwestern pine dwarf-mistletoe, or acorn-producing Gambel oak [70]. After monitoring cattle use on interior ponderosa pine/Arizona fescue-mountain muhly on the Manitou Experimental Forest near Colorado Springs, Colorado, Smith [265] recommended 30 to 40% utilization of the bunchgrasses by the end of the grazing season to maximize cattle weight gain while maintaining palatable bunchgrasses. Currie [82] provides suggestions for managing interior ponderosa pine/bunchgrass lands in the Central Rocky Mountains for cattle grazing. Response of to interior ponderosa pine grazing: Light- to moderate-intensity grazing does not greatly impact advanced interior ponderosa pine regeneration on rangelands in good condition. On the Manitou Experimental Forest, neither rest-rotation nor season-long grazing resulted in much damage to natural and artificial regeneration under light or moderate use, but interior ponderosa pine seedlings were heavily browsed and incurred severe damage to terminal buds under heavy rest-rotation or season-long grazing use [82]. Thirteen years after exclosures were built, ponderosa pine in northern and central Arizona had increased slightly on both ungrazed and grazed plots, at 6% and 5% frequency, respectively. Initial frequency was 2% on both plots [24]. Mast and others [213] found that moderate cattle grazing combined with fire exclusion has favored interior ponderosa pine seedling establishment on ponderosa pine/grassland and ecotonal communities of the Colorado Front Range. Prior to fire exclusion, frequent fire probably excluded ponderosa pine seedlings at the ecotonal boundary.
Related categories for SPECIES: Pinus ponderosa var. scopulorum | Interior Ponderosa Pine |
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