• WOOD PRODUCTS VALUE
• IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE
• PALATABILITY
• NUTRITIONAL VALUE
• COVER VALUE
• VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES
• OTHER USES
• OTHER MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS

WOOD PRODUCTS VALUE:

IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE:

Big game: In general, big game use is greatest in early to mid-successional Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir stands because valuable shrub forage species' cover is reduced by shading in late successional stands [205]. Elk browsing (or lack thereof) can greatly influence shrub development in Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir stands [127].  In spring and winter (in British Columbia, Idaho, and Montana) elk use south- and southwest-facing Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir and Pacific ponderosa pine stands, particularly when shrubs and/or grasses are productive [40,205,248]. In summer, elk generally are found at higher elevations (outside the Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir and Pacific ponderosa pine zones). During fall elk use stands of Rocky Mountain lodgepole pine, subalpine fir, western larch, or grand fir with high canopy cover (>75%) [40]. Elk use of Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir is generally low if preferred species are present [95,153,154]. In parts of Yellowstone National Park elk browsing is so pervasive that young Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir are stunted at 3 to 4.5 feet (1-1.5 m) in height, with live branches trailing very close to the ground, and branches on the upper 2/3rds of the tree dead [147].

Low-elevation and south-facing open-structure Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir types are often important winter range for white-tailed and mule deer [205,248]. In a Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir/ninebark community in the Selway Bitterroot Wilderness of Idaho, white-tailed deer preferred sites that had short average distance to cover; mule deer used more open areas. White-tailed deer preferred unburned  habitat in these communities except in February when they preferred unburned Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir bunchgrass communities. Mule deer more frequently used burned portions of ninebark and bunchgrass communities [145]. Mule deer in north-central Washington showed a preference for Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir dominated conifer forests; these had an availability of 0.5% but a summer use of 9.5% and winter use of 12.0% [59]. Big game typically browse Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir in the winter or early spring when other preferred forage is lacking. Mule deer browse it more than elk do [95,153,154].

Moose winter in low-elevation Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir types in areas where willow thickets, the preferred winter habitat, are lacking; in such areas Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir is an important moose food [99]. Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir may make up a small (up to 2%) portion of bighorn sheep winter diets [144].

Small mammals: Chipmunks, mice, voles, and shrews eat large quantities of conifer seeds from the forest floor [105], and clipped cones are a staple and major part of storage of red squirrels. These animals store a large amount of Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir cones or seeds [87,105]. In the Blue Mountains of Oregon, American martens frequently use "brooms" created by rust fungi and Douglas-fir dwarf mistletoe (43%), cavities in trees (23%), and burrows in snow or hollow logs (23%) for resting sites. American marten commonly den in hollow logs. The removal of trees with brooms and other management practices aimed at reducing fuels may negatively impact marten habitat [50].

Birds: Numerous species of songbirds extract seeds from Douglas-fir cones or forage for seeds on the ground. The most common are the Clark's nutcracker, black-capped chickadee, mountain chickadee, boreal chickadee, red-breasted nuthatch, pygmy nuthatch, red-winged crossbill, white-winged crossbill, dark-eyed junco, and pine siskin [105,151,238]. Migrating flocks of dark-eyed juncos may decimate seeds and freshly germinated seedlings [151,238]. Approximately 26 species of birds feed on western spruce budworm associated with Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir [68]. Woodpeckers commonly feed in the bark of Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir [174]. Blue grouse forage on needles and buds in winter [56,168]; they and other birds rely heavily on Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir communities for cover (see below).

PALATABILITY:

NUTRITIONAL VALUE:

COVER VALUE:

Game birds: Blue grouse use open, dense, and intermediate density Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir stands (pure stands or with subalpine fir, Engelmann spruce, lodgepole pine, limber pine, Rocky Mountain juniper, or quaking aspen) [56]. However, males heavily use thickets of younger Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir (average about 5 inches (12.5 cm) in diameter) that have high density (up to 1,200 trees per acre) [170]. In northeastern Utah, blue grouse were observed to prefer Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir trees for roosts during the day and subalpine fir at night [201]. Pekins and others [201] suggest that management strategies "perpetuate large trees within Douglas-fir-subalpine fir habitat in areas occupied by blue grouse." Merriam's turkeys use tall, high-canopy coverage Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir for roosts [260]. Wakeling and Rodgers [260] suggest that logging should avoid known roosts and retain 20.2 m/ha of basal area.

Raptors: Flammulated owls most commonly use old growth Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir with or without ponderosa pine because these forests have a higher insect diversity and availability, open structure, and cavities for nesting [126]. Old growth that occurs in a landscape of closed canopy forest with little habitat variety are not used as much as old growth when it occurs in complex landscape with openings and dense thickets. Where old growth occurs in forests that are predominantly closed-canopy, prescribed surface fire may augment habitat, but surface fire applied over a large area without leaving thickets probably decreases habitat quality [165]. In the River of No Return Wilderness in central Idaho, boreal owls use mixed conifer stands (39%), spruce-fir stands (25%), Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir (18%), and quaking aspen stands (18%) for breeding territories [114]. Mexican spotted owls in the San Mateo Mountains of New Mexico showed a preference for greater density of large Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir, southwestern white pine, and Gambel oak. Canopy disturbance, through stand-replacing fire or logging, may have a negative impact on Mexican spotted owl habitat [121]. Sharp-shinned hawks, great-horned owls, and Cooper's hawks also nest and/or roost in Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir [185,206].

Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir habitat types provide excellent hiding and thermal cover for deer, elk, and bighorn sheep [64]. Dittberner and Olsen [78] rate Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir cover value as "good" for mule deer, white-tailed deer, small mammals, small nongame birds, and upland game birds in Colorado, Montana, Utah, and Wyoming.

VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES:

Kilns are preferable for drying cones but air-drying also works. When dry, cones may be kept for 3 or 4 months without affecting viability. A seed extraction process includes tumbling dry cones, removing scales and debris, removing seed wings, and winnowing away hollow seeds and debris. Seed sowing for nurseries is most commonly done in spring; fall sowing allows stratification but also increases losses to birds and rodents. Stratification in nurseries is commonly done at 33 to 41 degrees Fahrenheit (1 to 5 °C) for 21 to 60 days [196]. More recently, Wells [264] recommended 39 degrees Fahrenheit (4 °C) for 17 weeks in a controlled environment for stratification (or 20 weeks post hard frost in Moscow, Idaho climate). In many potential Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir sites growth and survival are potentially limited by competition for water from rhizomatous grasses [205,242].

OTHER USES:

OTHER MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS:

Carlson and Wulf [58] have outlined silvicultural strategies to reduce Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir susceptibility to spruce budworm. Steele and Geier-Hayes [247] recommend a stand density below 120 ft²/acre (27.5 m²/ha) to protect pure stands of Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir from extensive bark beetle infestation.

Insect damage: Insects associated with Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir include defoliators such as Douglas-fir tussock moth and western spruce budworm; bark beetles and pinhole borers like Douglas-fir engraver beetles, Douglas-fir beetle, and ambrosia beetles (Playpus spp., Gnathotrichus spp., Trypodendron spp.); and Cooley spruce gall aphids (Adelges cooleyi) [5]. Western conifer seed bug (Leptoglossus occidentalis), Douglas-fir seed chalcid (Megastigmus spermotrophus), Douglas-fir cone moth (Barbara colfaxiana), fir coneworm (Dioryctria abietivorella), ponderosa pine coneworm (Dioryctria aurenticella), and western spruce budworm consume seed [119,178]. Insect outbreaks can be widespread and pervasive. In the Blue Mountains of Oregon in 1990, 53% of U.S. Forest Service land had "visible insect-caused defoliation and mortality," with western spruce budworm causing injury and mortality on 41% of the land [98]. Douglas-fir beetle, wood borers, Douglas-fir tussock moth, and spruce budworm have increased as a result of fire suppression [5,208].

Western spruce budworm larvae feed on foliage and immature cones; in Montana in Rocky Mountain Douglas fir- pinegrass habitats, cone production was consistently much higher in lightly defoliated (0-37.5%) trees than heavily defoliated (>62.5%) trees [60]. Chrisman and others [60] suggest that cone production is reduced by direct feeding  as well as indirect defoliation effects. Dewey [74]  studied the effects of western spruce budworm on Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir cones from near Frenchtown, Montana; approximately 10% of cones from 1 season had "obvious symptoms" of insect damage.  In 4 stands near Missoula, Montana, Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir seed production was reduced ( in 1980 and 1982) approximately 33% because of insect feeding. In 1981 cone production was very low because 2^nd- and 3^rd-stage western spruce budworm larvae fed on ovulate buds in 1979 [239]. 

Western spruce budworm and Douglas-fir tussock moth infestations occur with periodicity (though sometimes highly variable) and can result in severe defoliation and seed supply reduction that limit survival and recruitment [227]. Between 1690 and 1989, western spruce budworm outbreaks in northern New Mexico occurred every 20 to 33 years, with durations averaging 11 years [69]. In the Blue Mountains between 1700 and 1991, "regional" scale western spruce budworm outbreaks occurred every 21 to 53 years with reduced radial growth occurring for 13 to 17 years with each outbreak. The outbreaks increased in frequency and severity in the 1900s (up to 80% mortality has occurred in some stands) [253]. Carlson and others [57] argue that outbreaks are not truly cyclical; in addition to abiotic factors, western spruce budworm starvation (towards end of outbreak), parasites and predators, and interactions thereof can influence population dynamics [57]. Lynch and Swetnam [164] analyzed western spruce budworm outbreaks in stands ranging from 98 to 694 years old; outbreaks were not confined to any age class, "nor did outbreaks appear to start in older stands." They did state, however, that outbreaks more persistent in older stands [164]. Western spruce budworm outbreaks occur in Montana, Idaho, Oregon, Washington, and southern portions of British Columbia and Alberta; frequency of outbreaks increases with decreasing precipitation and is highest in southwestern Montana and central Idaho [58,82].

Douglas-fir dwarf mistletoe: Douglas-fir dwarf mistletoe can substantially affect forest structure by causing stunted growth, reduced seed production, and mortality [37]. Mortality of infected trees is low but growth is considerably retarded [227]. Trees that host Douglas-fir dwarf mistletoe grow dense "broom" branches that increase risk of fire damage [266]. Other dwarf mistletoe-induced morphologies that increase fire severity include mortality, spike-tops, slower growth, and resin-filled stem cankers. Dwarf mistletoe-infested Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir commonly have suppressed growth and a higher than normal proportion of compression wood, decreasing their susceptibility to decay [9]. Bennetts and others [37] "suggest that in areas where management goals are not strictly focused on timber production, control of dwarf mistletoe may not be justified, practical, or even desirable... dwarf mistletoes may have positive influence on wildlife habitat."

Disease: Agee and Edmonds [5] list the disease causing parasites of Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir as root rots like Phellinus root rot (Phellinus weirii) and Armillaria root disease (Armillaria ostoyae, other Armilllaria spp.); heart rots and decays like white pocket rot (Phellinus pini), velvet top fungus (Haeolus schweinitzii), sulphur fungus (Laetoporus sulphureus), and Quinine conk (Fomitopsis officinialis) [5]. Armillaria ostoyae infects conifers most readily and is prevalent in the Northwest. It is usually saprophytic but can be pathogenic; inocula remain viable for up to 50 years [86].

"Broom" branch morphologies are caused by not only Douglas-fir dwarf mistletoe but also by rust fungi (Chrysomyxa or Melampsorella) and needle cast fungus (Elytroderma deformans) [9,197,197]. Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir is susceptible to Annosus root disease; it is a significant cause of mortality in Montana, Idaho, and Utah. Mortality may occur directly via root damage or indirectly via increased susceptibility to bark beetles. Mortality is patchy, indicative of the spread of the fungal hyphae in soil [195].

Several pathogens can be active at a small scale [195]. There are interactive effects within a stand or even on a single tree; for example, Armillaria ostayae and Phellinus weirii co-occur within small areas in northern Idaho [195]. Annosus root disease and Armillaria are often closely associated [195].

Wildlife: Ponderosa pine stands that have been invaded by Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir have been treated with shelterwood cuts in combination with prescribed surface fire, which augments big game habitat by increasing forage production and shrub vigor. In mixed-conifer stands timber harvest can improve browse for elk and deer, particularly if fire afterwards stimulates aspen regeneration [199]. Though postharvest fire reduces the cover of shrubs initially, within several years the loss may be over-compensated in growth [25].  For cavity- nester habitat in Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir/ western larch/Pacific ponderosa pine forests, McClelland [174] recommends the following: in a 1,000 acre area 50 to 100 acres of old-growth is should be preserved in scattered patches, other logs and snags should be retained as is possible, and collection of large trees for firewood should be reduced [174]. Ganey [96] contends that snag density criteria set for management goals may be unreachable: in northern Arizona, 6.7% and 16.7% of logged plots in interior ponderosa pine and mixed- conifer stands, respectively, met regional Forest Service standards for large snag retention. Among unlogged sites only 30% and 32% of interior ponderosa pine and mixed- conifer stands met the same standards.

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Related categories for SPECIES: Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca | Rocky Mountain Douglas-Fir