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Wildlife, Animals, and Plants
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Introductory
SPECIES: Salix exigua | Sandbar Willow
ABBREVIATION :
SALEXI
SYNONYMS :
Salix argophylla Nutt.
Salix fluviatilis var. exigua (Nutt.) Sarg.
Salix interior Rowlee
Salix interior var. angustissima (Anderss.) Dayton
Salix interior var. exterior Fern.
Salix interior var. pedicellata (Anderss.) Ball
Salix interior var. wheeleri Rowlee
Salix longifolia Muhl. non Lam.
Salix longifolia var. angustissima Anderss.
Salix longifolia var. argophylla (Nutt.) Anderss.
Salix longifolia var. exigua (Nutt.) Bebb
Salix longifolia var. pedicellata Anderss.
Salix stenophylla Rydb.
SCS PLANT CODE :
SAEX
COMMON NAMES :
sandbar willow
sand-bar willow
coyote willow
dusky willow
narrowleaf willow
slender willow
basket willow
acequia willow
gray sandbar willow
silvery desert willow
TAXONOMY :
There has been considerable disagreement over the taxonomy of the Salix
exigua complex. Entities in this complex have been interpreted
variously as distinct species [1,15,16] or as subspecies
[7,10,22,27,62]. However, because the Salix exigua complex has many
forms and freely interbreeding intermediates, ranking entities at the
subspecific level appears to be more correct. The fully documented
scientific name of sandbar willow is Salix exigua Nutt. Recognized
subspecies and varieties [7,10,22,27,62], and a proposed variety [10]
are:
Salix exigua
ssp. exigua
var. exigua
var. stenophylla
ssp. interior
var. pedicellata
var. interior
ssp. melanopsis
var. melanopsis
var. tenerrima (Brunsfeld and Johnson 1985)
LIFE FORM :
Tree
FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS :
No special status
OTHER STATUS :
NO-ENTRY
COMPILED BY AND DATE :
Ronald Uchytil/March 1989
LAST REVISED BY AND DATE :
NO-ENTRY
AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION :
Uchytil, Ronald J. 1989. Salix exigua. In: Remainder of Citation
DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
SPECIES: Salix exigua | Sandbar Willow
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION :
Sandbar willow occurs from eastern Quebec and New Brunswick west across
Canada to central Manitoba, Yukon Territory, and central Alaska, south
through British Columbia and Washington to southern California, and
southeast to southern Texas, southern Louisiana, western Tennessee,
Kentucky, and Virginia [8,35]. The ranges of subspecies exigua and
interior overlap. Subspecies exigua is found from British Columbia,
Montana, and the Black Hills south to New Mexico, Arizona, and Texas.
Subspecies interior is found from New Brunswick to Alaska, south to
Maine, Virginia, Kentucky, Lousiana, Arkansas, and New Mexico [22,54].
ECOSYSTEMS :
FRES10 White - red - jack pine
FRES11 Spruce - fir
FRES15 Oak - hickory
FRES17 Elm - ash - cottonwood
FRES18 Maple - beech - birch
FRES19 Aspen - birch
FRES20 Douglas-fir
FRES21 Ponderosa pine
FRES26 Lodgepole pine
FRES28 Western hardwoods
FRES29 Sagebrush
FRES34 Chaparral - mountain shrub
FRES38 Plains grasslands
FRES39 Prairie
STATES :
AK AZ AR CA CO ID KS KY LA ME
MI MN MO MT NE NV NM ND OK OR
SD TN TX UT VA WA WI WY AB BC
MB NB PQ YT MEXICO
ADMINISTRATIVE UNITS :
AGFO APIS ARCH BADL BAND BITH
BICA BLRI BRCA BUFF CACH CANY
CARE CEBR CHCU COLM CODA CRMO
CUVA DEVA DEWA DINO EFMO FLFO
FOBO GATE GLAC GLCA GRCA GRTE
GRKO GRBA INDU JODA LAME LAMR
MACA MEVE NABR PEFO PIRO PIPE
ROMO SAGU SLBE THRO TICA WICA
YELL YOSE YUCH ZION
BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS :
5 Columbia Plateau
6 Upper Basin and Range
7 Lower Basin and Range
8 Northern Rocky Mountains
9 Middle Rocky Mountains
10 Wyoming Basin
11 Southern Rocky Mountains
12 Colorado Plateau
13 Rocky Mountain Piedmont
14 Great Plains
15 Upper Missouri Basin and Broken Lands
KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS :
K011 Western ponderosa forest
K012 Douglas-fir forest
K016 Eastern ponderosa forest
K017 Black Hills pine forest
K018 Pine - Douglas-fir forest
K019 Arizona pine forest
K020 Spruce - fir - Douglas-fir forest
K023 Juniper - pinyon woodland
K033 Chaparral
K035 Coastal sagebrush
K037 Mountain-mahogany - oak scrub
K038 Great Basin sagebrush
K039 Blackbrush
K040 Saltbush - greasewood
K041 Creosotebush
K042 Creosotebush - bursage
K049 Tule marshes
K051 Wheatgrass - bluegrass
K055 Sagebrush steppe
K056 Wheatgrass - needlegrass shrubsteppe
K057 Galleta - threeawn shrubsteppe
K063 Foothills prairie
K064 Grama - needlegrass - wheatgrass
K065 Grama - buffalograss
K066 Wheatgrass - needlegrass
K070 Sandsage - bluestem prairie
K075 Nebraska Sandhills prairie
K093 Great Lakes spruce - fir forest
K095 Great Lakes pine forest
K098 Northern floodplain forest
K106 Northern hardwoods
SAF COVER TYPES :
1 Jack pine
5 Balsam fir
16 Aspen
63 Cottonwood
108 Red maple
202 White spruce - paper birch
210 Interior Douglas-fir
217 Aspen
218 Lodgepole pine
222 Black cottonwood - willow
235 Cottonwood - willow
SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES :
NO-ENTRY
HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES :
Sandbar willow usually occurs in early seral communities. These are
typically riparian and occur as narrow bands immediately adjacent to the
stream or river edge. Throughout the Rocky Mountain States, it commonly
occurs as a dense shrub layer adjacent to bottomlands of cottonwood
(Populus spp.) and birch (Betula spp.) [23,31,60]. Published
classifications listing sandbar willow as an indicator or dominant in
community types (cts), habitat types (hts), plant associations (pas),
riparian site types (rst), or riparian zone associations (rzas) are
presented below:
Area Classification Authority
sw US riparian hts Szaro & Patton 1987
sw US wetland cts Brown 1979
AZ,NM riparian pas Pase & Layser 1977
c CO: Arapaho & forest hts Hess & Alexander 1986
Roosevelt NFs
CO: Gunnison & forest hts Komarkova & others 1988
Uncompahgre NFs
e CO: South Platte riparian cts Lindauer 1983
& Arkansas
Rivers
e ID,w WY riparian cts Youngblood & others 1985a
ID: Upper & Middle riparian cts Platts & others 1987
Forks Salmon
River
sw MT riparian veg. rst, hts, cts Hansen & others 1988
MT riparian dominance types Hansen & others 1988
sw NM riparian cts Medina 1986
sc OK bottomland cts Petranka & Holland 1980
OR: Deschutes, riparian cts Kovalchik 1987
Ochoco,Fremont
& Winema NFs
n UT,s ID riparian cts Padgett & others 1985
VALUE AND USE
SPECIES: Salix exigua | Sandbar Willow
WOOD PRODUCTS VALUE :
NO-ENTRY
IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE :
Sandbar willow is an important food source for many wildlife species.
In the Great Basin it has been reported as a favorite food of beaver
[41]. Willows (Salix spp.) in general are a preferred food of moose,
and sandbar willow occurs in riparian and flood plain habitats which
these animals frequent [6,30,34,45]. It also is browsed heavily by elk
[45] but is of only slight improtance as browse for mule deer [57].
Dense stands provide hiding cover for wildlife but at the same time
limit access for livestock [23,24]. Stands in eastern Colorado are used
extensively by waterfowl during winter [35].
PALATABILITY :
Van Dersal [57], reported that sandbar willow is relished by livestock.
In the West, willows are generally considered to be more palatable to
sheep than to cattle, but cattle may make greater use of willow plants
because they tend to frequent riparian areas [56]. Most willows are
highly palatable to moose, especially in winter, and make up a high
percentage of their diet on western ranges [45]. The palatablity of
sandbar willow to livestock and wildlife species in several western
states has been rated as follows [14,51,53,29]:
CA CO UT WY
Cattle poor fair fair ----
Sheep fair fair fair ----
Horses poor fair fair ----
Moose ---- ---- ---- good
Mule deer fair ---- good ----
White-tailed deer fair ---- ---- ----
NUTRITIONAL VALUE :
Sandbar willow's energy value is rated as fair and its protein value as
poor [14].
COVER VALUE :
Sandbar willow can form stands or thickets several meters thick, with
densely spaced stems. These stands provide excellent hiding cover for
numerous wildlife species [23]. In California, the endangered Least
Bell's Vireo frequently nests in willow thickets [21].
The degree to which sandbar willow provides environmental protection
during one or more seasons for wildlife species has been rated as
follows [14,18]:
UT WY MT
Pronghorn fair poor ----
Elk fair fair ----
Mule deer good good ----
White-tailed deer ---- good ----
Small mammals fair good ----
Small nongame birds good good ----
Upland game birds good good ----
Waterfowl fair good good
VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES :
Sandbar willow's ability to rapidly colonize disturbed sites makes it
very useful for streambank stabilization projects. Cuttings are
preferred for use in revegetating disturbed riparian areas because they
quickly stabilize disturbed alluvium, which allows other plants to
become established. Unrooted willow stem cuttings (slips) should be
planted on sites that provide sufficient moisture to start and maintain
growth through the growing season [56]. Since willows are sensitive to
both competition and shading, dense tall grasses will reduce transplant
survival [47] and may need to be removed by cutting or by herbicide
application [34]. Although harder to plant, rooted stock is recommended
because it has higher survival rates [47,58]. Slips should be obtained
from local native stands. Cuttings should be planted 12 inches (30 cm)
deep, with 8 inches (20 cm) left above ground [47]. Planting deep
allows for more rooting surface to extract soil moisture and higher
amounts of carbohydrates as stored food reserves [47,58]. Sandbar
willow cuttings root along the entire length of the stem, with roots
appearing in about 10 days [23,47]. If serious streambank erosion has
caused a nearly verticle cut bank, reshaping of the slope may be needed
to enhance success of transplants; reshaping is not necessary if,
through protective measures, existing vegetation is able to stabilize
the site [47,58]. Under any method of revegetation, sites should be
fenced to protect them from grazing and trampling.
OTHER USES AND VALUES :
All willows produce salicin, which chemically is closely related to
acetylsalicylic acid, commonly known as aspirin. This is probably why
Native Americans used various preparations from willows to treat
toothache, stomach ache, diarrhea, dysentery, and dandruff [41]. Native
Americans also used the stems for basketry and bow making, and the bark
for tea and fabric making [34].
MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
Stands of sandbar willow should be maintained because they help
stabilize streambanks and protect them from erosion. Once degredation
occurs, streambanks may erode rapidly [23].
BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
SPECIES: Salix exigua | Sandbar Willow
GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS :
Sandbar willow is a short-lived deciduous shrub or small tree up to
about 26 feet (8 m) tall, with soft weak wood, and thin gray-green to
brown bark [7,54,62]. Staminate and pistillate flowers occur on
separate plants as catkins. The fruit is a narrowly ovoid capsule. The
three subspecies as a whole are characterized as (1) having numerous
slender stems, (2) forming thickets through the underground spread of
root suckers, and (3) having long and narrow mature leaves (5 to 20
times as long as wide) which are equally green on both surfaces
[7,10,23]. The three subspecies intergrade, making identification
difficult; general botanical characteristics of the subspecies include
[7,10,16,54,62]:
ssp. exigua ssp. interior ssp. melanopsis
Mature Height 6-12 f (2-4 m) 20 feet (6 m) 12 feet (4 m)
Mature Leaves lanceolate linear-lanceolate linear or oblong
entire/few toothed remotely dentate toothed/subentire
up to 13 cm long up to 12 cm long up to 12 cm long
Male Catkins 1-4.5 cm long 3-4 cm long 1.5-3.5 cm long
Female Catkins 1.5-6 cm long 2.5-3 cm long 2-4 cm long
Capsule 4-7 mm long 6-7.3 mm long 3-5 mm long
sessile pedicellate/glab. sessile/glabrous
Twigs of Season thin-dense sparse-moderate
pubescence,with pubescence,with
strait appressed loosely appressed
hairs wavy/curly hairs
RAUNKIAER LIFE FORM :
Undisturbed State: Phanerophyte (nanophanerophyte)
Undisturbed State: Phanerophyte (microphanerophyte)
Burned State: Hemicryptophyte
REGENERATION PROCESSES :
Sandbar willow is able to reproduce vegetatively by sprouting from
underground shoot buds which occur on lateral roots and produce male or
female clones. This method of vegetative reproduction (suckering) is
uncommon in willows and occurs only in section Longifoliae [1].
Suckering allows this plant to spread and form colonies or thickets that
may be several meters in diameter [1,10]. On a sandbar in Wisconsin
estimated to be approximately 45 to 50 years old, more than 97 percent
of sandbar willow (ssp. interior) stems sampled were clones 1 to 3 years
old [3]. Regeneration may also occur through broken pieces of stems and
roots which are transported and deposited by floodwaters and later
sprout. This is a common method of vegetative reproduction in willows
and may be important in initial colonization of some disturbed sites,
although seeding seems to be more important [65].
Reproduction occurs sexually through the production of numerous seeds.
Flowers are pollinated by insects, commonly by bees [41]. After
fertilization, a capsule develops which eventually splits open,
dispersing the numerous tiny seeds which are covered with a cottony down
which aids in their dispersal by wind and water [2,41]. The nondormant
seeds have a thin seed coat and germinate soon after being dispersed.
On adequate substrates most germinate within 24 hours [12]. Ware and
Penfound [59] found that seeds older than 1 week rarely germinated; thus
seeds must land on suitable sites quickly if they are to germinate.
Seeds kept at 32 to 41 degrees F (0-5 deg C) can be stored 4 to 6 weeks
[8]. Seeds require light for germination [8]. Fresh alluvium deposited
along rivers provides an ideal substrate for establishment. These sites
have constant soil moisture and generally have no overstory trees to
shade out this light-sensitive species [23].
SITE CHARACTERISTICS :
Sandbar willow is found almost exclusively in riparian habitats,
occupying banks of major rivers and smaller streams, lakes and ponds,
marshy areas, alluvial terraces, and ditches [16,23,54,64]. It
characteristically forms zones immediately adjacent to the water's edge.
These areas are subjected to periodic flooding which often deposits sand
and cobble below the high water mark. With severe annual flooding it
may be the only shrub to survive in this zone [10]. Although often
found below the high water mark, it must have a portion of its crown out
of the water during part of the summer to survive [52]. Sandbar willow
may also occur on moist, well-drained benches and bottomlands [10]. It
normally does not exist in the understory due to its shade intolerance,
and is generally replaced by cottonwoods.
Soils: Sandbar willow occurs on a wide range of soil textures, but
usually occurs on soils derived from alluvial or fluvial parent material
of mixed geologic origin [60]. In western Montana it is typically found
on coarse-textured substrates of sand or gravel, but in eastern Montana
it may occur on fine-textured silts [23]. It also occurs on a wide
range of soil types in eastern Idaho and western Wyoming. Sandbar
willow communities there occupied soils from fine-loamy or finer
textures, to coarse-textured soils with up to 35 percent rock fragments
[64].
Associates: Adjacent drier areas may be dominated by cottonwoods, green
ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), water birch (Betula occidentalis),
thinleaf alder (Alnus incana ssp. tenuifolia), and other willows
[23,64].
Elevation: Sites in the Intermountain West are typically at low to
mid-elevations. Stands in Montana, Wyoming, and Idaho are adjacent to
uplands commonly dominated by conifers, and big sagebrush (Artemisia
tridentata) and Idaho fescue (Festuca idahoensis) [10,24,43,64].
Elevational ranges for several western states are presented below
[10,14,24,25,42,42,48,62]:
2,700-8,500 feet (825-2,590 m) in UT
5,000-9,000 feet (1,524-2,743 m) in CO
8,000 feet (2,438 m) in s CA
3,200-6,700 feet (975-2,042 m) in MT
3,400-8,600 feet (1,036-2,621 m) in WY
ssp. exigua: below 6,000 feet (1,830 m) in east-central ID
ssp. melanopsis: 6,000-7,000 feet (1,830-2,130 m) in ec ID
ssp. exigua: 3,500 to 3,900 feet (1,067-1,181 m) Trans Pecos TX
ssp. interior: 1,800 to 3,600 feet (549-1,097 m) Trans Pecos TX
SUCCESSIONAL STATUS :
Sandbar willow is a pioneer species that colonizes new sand and gravel
bars. After initial colonization, it helps stabilize the sand and
gravel deposits, which allows other species to follow [49]. It may
dominate these disturbed areas for only a few years before being
replaced by cottonwoods. Repeated flooding may allow sandbar willow to
persist [24], but once cottonwoods become established it cannot
regenerate and establish itself. In Kansas, it occurs only as a
pioneer; stands there maintain themselves for about 10 years before
cottonwood becomes established and shades them out [4].
SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT :
Catkins of sandbar willow develop over a several weeks, with the first
expanding with the leaves and then continuing to develop as the leaves
mature [10]. Flowering times for several states follow [14]:
State Flowering Begins Flowering Ends
CO May July
MT May July
UT April July
WY May July
Noble [67] reported that in Minnesota seeds were shed from early June to
late July, which is commonly the time the rivers are dropping in
elevation and exposing moist substrates favorable for germination. Seed
dispersal probably coincides with local flooding patterns.
In Oklahoma Ware and Penfound [59] reported that plants produce leaves
by March 28, fruits by May 5, and seedlings by May 15.
FIRE ECOLOGY
SPECIES: Salix exigua | Sandbar Willow
FIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS :
Sandbar willow sprouts from its roots after fire [11,50,65]. Its
numerous wind-dispersed seeds are also important in revegetating burned
areas [50]. The high soil and fuel moisture content characteristic of
its steamside habitat reduces the chance of fire ingition and spread.
POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY :
survivor species; on-site surviving root crown or caudex
off-site colonizer; seed carried by wind; postfire years one and two
off-site colonizer; seed carried by animals or water; postfire yr 1&2
FIRE EFFECTS
SPECIES: Salix exigua | Sandbar Willow
IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT :
Most fires kill only aboveground plant parts. However, severe fires can
completely remove organic soil layers, leaving willow roots exposed and
charred, thus eliminating basal sprouting [4,5,6].
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT :
NO-ENTRY
PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE :
Generally sandbar willow will sprout from its roots following fire
[50,65]. Irwin [30] found that sandbar willow was common in the boreal
forest of northeastern Minnesota 2 years after a May wildfire. Sandbar
willow is a prolific seeder; off-site plants are important as a seed
source for revegetating burned areas [65].
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE :
NO-ENTRY
FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
Due to its proximity to water or high water tables, sandbar willow
communities may serve as natural fire breaks [2].
REFERENCES
SPECIES: Salix exigua | Sandbar Willow
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Index
Related categories for Species: Salix exigua
| Sandbar Willow
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