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Wildlife, Animals, and Plants
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Introductory
SPECIES: Sequoia sempervirens | Redwood
ABBREVIATION :
SEQSEM
SYNONYMS :
Taxodium sempervirens (D. Don) Lamb.
Steinhauera sempervirens (Voss. S.) Presl.
SCS PLANT CODE :
SESE3
COMMON NAMES :
redwood
California redwood
coast redwood
TAXONOMY :
The currently accepted scientific name of redwood is Sequoia
sempervirens (D. Don) Endl. Redwood is a member of the Taxodium
(Taxodiaceae) family [44]. There are no recognized subspecies,
varieties, or forms.
LIFE FORM :
Tree
FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS :
No special status
OTHER STATUS :
NO-ENTRY
COMPILED BY AND DATE :
Randy Scott Griffith, August 1992.
LAST REVISED BY AND DATE :
NO-ENTRY
AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION :
Griffith, Randy Scott. 1992. Sequoia sempervirens. In: Remainder of Citation
DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
SPECIES: Sequoia sempervirens | Redwood
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION :
Redwood is endemic to the coastal area of northern California and
southwestern Oregon. The redwoods occupy a narrow strip of land
approximately 450 miles (724 km) in length and 5 to 35 miles (8-56 km)
in width. The northern boundary of its range is marked by two groves on
the Chetco River in the Siskiyou Mountains within 15 miles (25 km) of
the California-Oregon border [22,40]. The southern boundary of
redwood's range is marked by a grove in Salmon Creek Canyon in the Santa
Lucia Mountains of southern Monterey County, California [40].
ECOSYSTEMS :
FRES20 Douglas-fir
FRES27 Redwood
STATES :
CA OR HI
ADMINISTRATIVE UNITS :
MUWO PORE REDW
BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS :
1 Northern Pacific Border
3 Southern Pacific Border
KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS :
K002 Cedar - hemlock - Douglas-fir forest
K006 Redwood forest
K028 Mosaic of K002 and K026
K029 California mixed evergreen forest
SAF COVER TYPES :
229 Pacific Douglas-fir
231 Port-Orford-cedar
232 Redwood
234 Douglas-fir - tanoak - Pacific madrone
SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES :
NO-ENTRY
HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES :
Redwood is listed as a dominant or codominant overstory species in the
following publications:
Coast redwood ecological types of southern Montery County, California [11].
Terrestrial natural communities of California [26].
The redwood forest and associated north coast forests [58].
Forest associations of Little Lost Man Creek, Humboldt County,
California: Reference-level in the hierarchical struture of
old-growth coastal redwood vegetaion [30].
Preliminary plant associations of the Siskiyou Mountain Province [5].
Tanoak series of the Siskiyou Region of southwest Oregon [6].
VALUE AND USE
SPECIES: Sequoia sempervirens | Redwood
WOOD PRODUCTS VALUE :
Redwood is one of Califorina's most valuable timber species [36]. The
wood is soft, weak, easily split, and very resistant to decay
[38,40,44]. The clear wood is used for dimension stock and shingles
[44]. Redwood burls are used in the production of table tops, veneers,
and turned goods [40].
IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE :
Redwood forests provide habitat for variety of mammals, aviafauna,
reptiles, and amphibians [7,45,48]. Remnant old-growth redwood stands
provide habitat for the federally threatened spotted owl and the
California-endangered marbled murrelet [1,46].
In settlement times fire scar cavities at the base of larger redwood
boles were used as goose pens; hence the name "goosepens" has been used
to denote fire scar cavities [14].
PALATABILITY :
NO-ENTRY
NUTRITIONAL VALUE :
NO-ENTRY
COVER VALUE :
Redwood forests provide hiding and thermal cover for Roosevelt elk,
black-tailed deer, and a variety of small mammals [24,45,48,50].
The pileated woodpecker generally selects broken tree tops or snags with
rot for nesting cover. The softness of redwood, however, allows the
pileated woodpecker to use green trees of adequate size. In one study
only half the nests of pileated woodpeckers were in redwoods that had
broken tops with rot, while the other half were in sound green trees
with no sign of decay in the excavation chips [25].
In California, the state-endangered marbled murrelet nests exclusively
in coastal old-growth redwood forests [46].
VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES :
In a large cutover area acquired by Redwood National Park, both
plantings and natural colonization of redwood on outsloped (recontoured
into the hillside) logging roads were used with good success. This
treatment curtailed erosion in the park by an estimated 6.6 million
cubic feet (0.2 mil m3) [33].
Redwood was one of a number of native species used successfully to
reclaim a riparian ecosytem in a city park in Berkeley; redwoods on the
site had a high survival rate [57].
Redwood can be propagated via seed or cuttings. Seeds should be sown
from December to April. If planting with a seed drill, the recommended
depth is 0.125 inch (0.32 cm), with a seeding rate that will yield 30
seedlings per square foot (333 seedlings/sq m) [8]. Cuttings from 2- to
3-year-old seedlings produce the highest percentage of rooted cuttings
(up to 90 percent); cuttings from older trees are more difficult to root
[36,40]. Hedging (close-cropping) can maintain the rooting capabilities
of the donor tree. By repeated hedging a single donor seedling and its
clones can produce a million cuttings in 3 years [40]. Redwood can also
be sucessfully propagated in plant tissue culture. The callus can be
induced to generate cultured plantlets. The cultured plantlets are
usually twice the size of seedlings the same age [40].
Millar and Libby [37] have developed guidelines for redwood seed
collection and for the use of redwood in the restoration of disturbed
areas.
OTHER USES AND VALUES :
The cultivars 'Nana Pendula' and 'Prostrata' are grown extensively as
ornamentals due to their reduced size [28]. Redwood has been planted in
New Zealand, Australia, and Europe [40].
Native Americans used redwood in the construction of canoes and as grave
markers [51].
MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
Wildlife: The marbled murrelet is dependent on old-growth redwood
forests for nesting habitat. This bird is listed as endangered in
California and is under consideration for federal protection as a
threatened species in California, Oregon, and Washington [1].
Old-growth redwood forests of northern California also provide critical
habitat for the federally endangered northern spotted owl [1].
Black-tailed deer numbers increase after clearcutting in the redwood
forest type as a result of the sudden increase in available understory
forage. After canopy closure (20 to 30 years), black-tailed deer
numbers decrease rapidly [50].
Years after clearcut Number of deer
0 to 5 43
5 to 10 142
10 to 15 21
15 to 20 21
20 to 25 8
25 to 30 8
Competition: Evergreen hardwoods are strong competitors in the redwood
forest type. Tanoak (Lithocarpus densiflorus) and Pacific madrone
(Arbutus menziesii) often resprout when cut, and reoccupy the site
before redwood. These competitors can be controlled by trunk injections
of triclopyr (Garlon 3A), with two to three treatments over a 4- to
5-year period giving the best results. Foliar spraying with triclopyr
can also control hardwoods but has adverse effects on redwood [56].
Mulching and the use of ground covers increase survival of planted
seedlings by reducing water evaporation and reducing competition from
shrubs [35]. Seedling survival can also be enhanced with the use of
shades [2].
Damage: Damaging agents include insects, branch canker (Coryneum spp.),
and heart rots (Poria sequoiae, P. albipellucida). The insects
associated with redwood cause no significant damage, but the branch
canker girdles stems and branches, which can be especially harmful in
plantations. Heart rots cause extensive cull in the redwood forest type
[40].
Wood rats girdle and strip the bark of redwood seedlings, and can
seriously limit redwood regeneration. Where this is a problem, site
preparation should include destroying wood rat nesting areas [49].
Redwood is susceptible to damage from soil compaction in areas of heavy
foot traffic [4].
Silviculture: The preferred silvicultural system for harvesting
redwoods is small clearcuts (30 to 40 acres) [10,41]. Boe [9] provides
information on the three silvicultural systems used in the redwood
forest type: clearcut, shelterwood, and selection cut.
Other: Namkoong and Roberds [39] developed an extinction model for
redwood. Their findings reveal there is a small probability of
extinction due to natural processes, which can easily be circumvented by
planting.
BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
SPECIES: Sequoia sempervirens | Redwood
GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS :
Redwood is a native, evergreen, long-lived (greater than 2,200 years),
monoecious tree [38,40]. Redwoods are among the world's tallest trees;
trees over 200 feet (61 m) are common, and many are over 300 feet (91 m)
[40]. The largest tree thus far was measured at 364 feet (110.3 m) in
height and 20 feet (6.1 m) in d.b.h. [44]. The root system is composed
of deep, widespreading lateral roots with no taproot [40,44]. The bark
is up to 12 inches (30 cm) thick and quite fibrous [44]. Redwood
self-prunes well in dense stands [40]; the base of the bole is strongly
buttressed [38].
RAUNKIAER LIFE FORM :
Phanerophyte (megaphanerophyte)
REGENERATION PROCESSES :
Redwood reproduces both sexually and asexually. The male and female
strobili are borne separately on different branches. Redwood begins
producing seeds at 5 to 15 years of age. Large seed crops occur
frequently, but viability of the seed is low [8]. A dry period during
pollination allows better pollen dispersal and improves seed viability.
The seeds are small and light, averaging 120,000 seeds per pound
(265,000 seeds/kg). The wings are not effective for wide dispersal
[19], and seeds are dispersed by wind an average of only 200 to 400 feet
(61-122 m) from the parent tree [40].
Redwood seeds do not require pretreatment to germinate. Germination is
epigeal [40]; the best seedbed is moist mineral soil with some shade
[17,36]. Germination rates are generally low due to low viability
rather than to dormancy. Germination rates with a mean of 10 percent
are the norm [8].
Seedlings require adequate moisture to survive. The roots of redwood
seedlings do not have root hairs and are thus inefficient at extracting
soil moisture. Once established seedlings can obtain remarkable growth
rates in the first season. Growth of 18 inches (46 cm) is not uncommon.
Older saplings (4 to 10 years old) can grow 6.5 feet (2.0 m) in one
growing season [40].
Redwoods can reproduce asexually by layering or sprouting from the root
crown or stump. Sprouts from the root crown are generally favored for
tree crops [10]; sprouts originating from the stump are generally not as
vigorous as root-crown sprouts, and are very susceptible to wind throw
[40]. Sprouts orginate from dormant or adventitious buds at or under
the surface of the bark [17,40]. The formation of these buds occurs at
a young age, as even seedlings have been observed to sprout after
top-kill [30]. The sprouting capacity of redwood decreases with size
and age [17]. Sprouting appears to be the greatest on the downhill side
of the tree [14]. Within a short period after sprouting each sprout
will develop its own root system, with the dominant sprouts forming a
ring of trees around the parent root crown [40]. The mean crop tree
sprouting potential per root crown is five, which adds many crop trees
to a given site [10].
Sprouts can achieve heights of 7 feet (2.1 m) in a single growing
season. Shading does not decrease sprout height, but it does reduce the
number and weight of sprouts [14]. Density of sprouts also affects
sprout vigor; the higher the density, the less vigorous the sprouts
[40].
SITE CHARACTERISTICS :
Redwood occurs in a maritime Mediterranean climate, where the winters
are cool and rainy, and the summers are dry. The mean precipitation is
70 inches (180 cm), with 90 percent falling between October and May.
The dry summers are mitigated by a heavy fog belt [30]. The fog reduces
the drought stress of this hydrophilic plant by reducing
evapotranspiration and adding soil moisture. Redwoods beyond the fog
belt appear to be limited to areas of high moisture. Currently there is
considerable debate over the link between the fog belt and redwood
distribution [11].
Preferred sites for redwood stands are alluvial fans, coastal plains,
and benches along large streams [40]. The size of a redwood can be site
dependent: a 400-year-old specimen on a hillside had a d.b.h. of 2 feet
(0.6 m), while a 600-year-old specimen on an alluvial fan had a d.b.h.
of 12 feet (3.6 m) [4].
Elevation: Redwood occurs at elevations ranging from sea level to 3,000
feet (0-915 m), but most stands occur from 100 to 2,320 feet (100-703 m)
[11,40]. Redwoods are sensitive to salt spray [40], and are usually
separated from the coast by intervening grassland [22]
Soils: Redwood has a strong affinity for deep, moist soils in the
Inceptisol and Ultisol soil orders [40]. The common parent materials
are graywacke sandstones, shales, and conglomerates [30].
Associates: In addition to those previously listed under Distribution
and Occurrence, overstory associates include Sitka spruce (Picea
sitchensis), Pacific yew (Taxus brevifolia), California torreya (Torreya
californica), Gowen cypress (Cupressus goveniana), bishop pine (Pinus
muricata), Montery pine (P. radiata), bigleaf maple (Acer macrophyllum),
Oregon white oak (Quercus garryana), and Oregon ash (Fraxinus latifolia)
[40].
Understory associates include vine maple (Acer circenatum), chittam bark
(Rhamnus purshiana), evergreen huckleberry (Vaccinium ovatum), Pacific
rhododendron (Rhododendron macrophyllum), salmon berry (Rubus
spectabilis), and evergreen ceanothus (Ceanothus velutinus) [40].
SUCCESSIONAL STATUS :
Faculative Seral Species
Obligate Climax Species
Redwood is classified as a shade-tolerant to very shade-tolerant species
due to its high photosynthetic capacity at low light levels [40].
Redwood releases well even at quite an old age. One specimen after
1,000 years released from 30 to 6 rings per inch (12-2.4 rings/cm) [19].
There is some debate over the classification of redwood as a climax
species. Some consider redwood a climax species, while others consider
it a fire-dependent seral species [15,41,54,55]. Osburn and Lowell [41]
reported that if fire is excluded from Redwood National Park over the
next 2,000 years redwood will disappear, and Sitka spruce, western
hemlock (Tsuga heterphylla), and western redcedar (Thuja plicata) will
dominate. Viers [55] on the other hand reported that redwood is a
climax species in the vicinity of Redwood National Park because it
maintains uneven age distributions with or without fire.
After disturbance redwood dominates in early seres due to its ability to
sprout [27,58].
In the floodplain environment redwood deploys what has been called "the
endurer strategy." After flooding and stem burial, redwood will develop
a new and higher lateral root system from buried buds on the bole of the
tree. While the repeated flooding and deposition of soil (often to
depths of 30 inches [76 cm]) kills competing vegetation, redwood endures
[3,40,58].
SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT :
Redwood female strobili become receptive and pollen is shed from late
November to early March. Female strobili start ripening in September of
the first year. Mature female strobili can be identified when their
color changes from green to greenish yellow. Seed dispersal begins in
late October, with most of the seeds being dispersed from November to
February [8].
FIRE ECOLOGY
SPECIES: Sequoia sempervirens | Redwood
FIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS :
Fire has had an ecological role in the redwood forest type [53]. The
mean fire interval (MFI) prior to human occupation was approximately 135
to 350 years, and after human influx (about 11,000 years ago) decreased
to approximately 17 to 82 years [21]. Redwood has adapted to this fire
regime, and mature redwoods are considered very resilient to fire. The
thick bark; great height; and ability to sprout from the root crown or
from dormant buds located under the bark of the bole and branches are
adaptations that allow redwood to survive cool to hot fires [16].
POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY :
Tree with adventitious-bud root crown/root sucker
Ground residual colonizer (on-site, initial community)
Crown residual colonizer (on-site, initial community)
Secondary colonizer - on-site seed
Secondary colonizer - off-site seed
FIRE EFFECTS
SPECIES: Sequoia sempervirens | Redwood
IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT :
The effect of fire on redwood varies depending on the size of the tree.
The bark of young trees (less than 8 inches [20 cm] d.b.h.) is generally
too thin to protect the cambium from damage, and trees of this size are
usually top-killed by cool to hot fires [16]. The thick bark of mature
redwood insulates the cambium from the heat of the fire [15], and in
many cases, fire may only reduce bark thickness [40]. Under more severe
circumstances, such as stand-replacing fires, basal wounding and
top-kill occurs [40].
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT :
Young trees originating from stump sprouts have a higher rate of
top-kill after fire than those originating from seedlings (see fire case
study) [16].
Basal wounding provides a vector for heart rot to enter the tree. Once
this has occurred, recurring fires and basal decay produce large basal
cavities, called goosepens, that weaken the tree [40].
PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE :
After fires that destroy all aboveground portions, both mature and young
redwoods will sprout from the root crown [40]; even seedlings have the
ability to sprout after top-kill [30]. After fires that destroy the
crown, redwoods greater than 8 inches (20 cm) will sprout from numerous
dormant buds along the bole and produce new foliage (see fire case
study) [14,16,40].
Redwood can also reestablish after fire via on-site and off-site seed
[43].
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE :
After crown-kill redwood sprouts new foliage from dormant buds along the
bole. The bole is covered with fine feathery foliage extending 2 to 3
feet (0.6-0.9 m) out from the bole. This manifestation is called a
fire-column. Over time the narrowed crown will again develop into a
typical crown. During the first 4 postfire years the tree will produce
very few strobili [40].
After top-kill, the number of sprouts per root crown depends on the
severity of the fire. Severe heat influx to the root crown kills more
of the dormant buds, thus reducing the number of sprouts; however, this
allocates more of the carbohydrate reserves to fewer sprouts, which
results in larger and taller sprouts [14].
FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
A fire regime where prescribed fire substitutes for lightning and
now-absent aboriginal ingitions may have to be implemented to maintain
or reestablish presettlement conditions in old-growth or cutover redwood
forests [15]. McBride and others [34] recommend that both frequency
distributions of fire intervals and an analysis of the pattern of fire
intervals be used as a basis for determining reburn intervals for
prescribed fire. They evaluated the fire history of redwood forest
stands in Muir Woods National Monument and, because of the highly skewed
frequency distribution observed in this type, suggested that the average
fire interval would be inappropriate to use as a reburn interval.
Instead a combination of shorter than the average and longer than the
average natural fire interval was recommended. In areas where fire has
been excluded for many decades, a prescribed fire program should start
with two short-interval fires (less than average interval) to reduce
high fuel accumulations. Once the fuel load has been reduced, a burning
pattern of two short fire intervals followed by a long interval should
be implemented [34].
Person and Hallin [43] reported that regeneration was 5 to 10 times
greater on cuts with moderate to hot slash fires than on those with cool
or no slash fires. Hallin [23] proposed the following guidelines for
slash fires:
(1) burn at night
(2) do not burn during the dry season (June thru September)
(3) light winds
(4) keep the area small (less than 40 acreas [16 ha])
(5) slash loads pulled away from advance regeneration
If sprouts are to be used as part of stand regeneration, the stumps
should not be debarked or severely burned during slash disposal, as
these actions will result in lowered sprout stocking [10].
Finney [14] has developed equations to estimate the fuel loading of the
forest floor in redwood stands based on forest floor depth.
FIRE CASE STUDIES
SPECIES: Sequoia sempervirens | Redwood
CASE NAME :
Prescribed underburning in young-growth redwood forests.
REFERENCES :
Finney, M. A. 1991 [14]
Finney, M. A.; Martin, R. E. 1991 [16]
SEASON/SEVERITY CLASSIFICATION :
May 1989 Low consumption burn
June 1990 Low consumption burn
October 1989 High consumption burn
STUDY LOCATION :
The study took place in two of California's state parks, Annadel State
Park and Humboldt Redwoods State Park. Each area had 16 plots. Annadel
State Park is located approximately 5 kilometers (3 mi) east of Santa
Rosa, California. The cordinates are 38 degrees 25 minutes North
latitude, 122 degrees 35 minutes West longitude, and the legal
description is T7N R7W SW1/4 of section 25.
Humboldt State Park is located approximately 320 kilometers (192 mi)
north of Annadel State Park near Weott, California. The coordinates are
39 degrees 16 minutes North latitude, 123 degrees 45 minutes West
longitude, and the legal description is T1S R2E S1/2 NW1/4 of section
20.
PREFIRE VEGETATIVE COMMUNITY :
At the Annadel site the forest was young growth with diameters between 5
and 40 centimeters (2-16 in). The age of the stand was between 120 and
140 years. Evidence on the site suggests that the stand developed from
sprouts after fire exclusion in brush fields began in the mid-1800s.
The fire regime in the area prior to exclusion was every 2 to 6 years.
The Humboldt site was also a young growth forest with diameters between
5 and 40 centimeters (2-16 in). This stand developed from natural
regeneration after logging approximately 60 to 80 years prior to the
study. The past fire regime in the Humboldt area was every 5 to 25
years.
TARGET SPECIES PHENOLOGICAL STATE :
The prescribed burns took place when the trees were actively growing;
the burn in October occurred at the onset of seed dispersal.
SITE DESCRIPTION :
On the Annadel site the plots were located on a northern aspect with a
slopes ranging from 30 to 40 percent. The elevation of the plots ranged
from 240 to 350 meters (792-1,155 ft).
On the Humboldt site the plots were located on a southern exposure with
slopes ranging from 10 to 40 percent. The elevation of the plots ranged
from 350 to 450 meters (1,155-1,485 ft).
FIRE DESCRIPTION :
To achieve different burn severities on the plots a variety of firing
techniques were used. To achieve low fireline intensities, backing and
flanking fires were used, and to obtain higher fireline intensities,
strip head fires were used, with the strips ranging from 3 to 6 meters
(10-20 ft) wide to regulate fuel availability and build-up of fireline
intensity.
On the Annadel site, two plots were burned on May 17, 1989; one plot on
May 25, 1989; five plots were burned on May 30, 1989; and 8 plots were
burned on October 17, 1989. Conditions were as follows:
Annadel Site
Date Air Rel. Wind
Temp. Humd. Speed
(C) (%) (m/s)
5/17/89 16-18 55-70 0-2.2
5/25/89 18 38-45 0-1.3
5/30/89 18-21 40-45 0-2.2
10/17/89 17-24 35-52 0
On the Humboldt site, seven plots were burned on October 10, 1989; one
plot was burned on October 11, 1989; and eight plots were burned on June
27, 1990. Conditions were as follows:
Humboldt Site
Date Air Rel. Wind
Temp. Humd. Speed
(C) (%) (m/s)
10/10/89 13-24 48-75 0-2.4
10/11/89 16-22 60-72 0-1.3
6/27/90 20 56 0-1.3
For more specific information on burn conditions and ingition pattern
for each of the 16 plots on the two sites, see Finney 1990.
The fuel loading on both sites ranged from 29 to 55 tonnes per hectare
(32-61 tn/a) of litter and duff. The small woody fuels (0-7.62 cm in
diameter) ranged from 9 to 20 tonnes per hectare with the large woody
fuels (> 7.62 cm) being highly variable.
The flame length ranged from 0.27 to 2.07 meters (0.9-6.8 ft) which
relates to a fireline intensity of 40 to 1833 kilowatts per meter
second.
The fuel consumption varied from 15 to 68 tonnes per hectare. The
percentage of fuel consumed ranged from 23 to 100 percent. Fuel
consumption was found to be positively related to fuel loading.
Finney provides in-depth information on these parameters.
FIRE EFFECTS ON TARGET SPECIES :
Most redwoods greater than 15 to 20 centimeters d.b.h. survived the most
severe prescribed fire with 100 percent surface fuel consumption and 100
percent crown scorch.
Redwoods originating from stump sprouts after logging were found to have
higher rates of top-kill than those originating from seedlings. This
was linked to higher fuel concentrations (2 to 5 times that between
clumps), the stump, and heat convection currents drafting inward and
around the circular clump of trees.
As redwoods achieve greater d.b.h. the probability of top-kill
decreases.
FIRE MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS :
Flame length and fuel consumption were found to be the most important
parameters in determining top-kill and basal sprouting. These
parameters can be easily controlled by use of different firing patterns
and fuel moisture to achieve the desired effects from a prescribed fire.
A regime of periodic prescribed fire would elevate the probability of
sprout regeneration being top-killed by preventing large fuel
accumulations.
REFERENCES
SPECIES: Sequoia sempervirens | Redwood
REFERENCES :
1. Abate, Tom. 1992. Which bird is the better indicator species for
old-growth forest?. BioScience. 42(1): 8-9. [17437]
2. Adams, Ronald S. 1974. When it pays to shade planted tree seedlings.
State Forest Notes No. 55. Sacramento, CA: State of California, The
Resources Agency, Department of Conservation, Division of Forestry. 6 p.
[7936]
3. Agee, James K. 1988. Successional dynamics in forest riparian zones. In:
Raedeke, Kenneth J., ed. Streamside management: riparian wildlife and
forestry interactions. Institute of Forest Resources Contribution No.
58. Seattle, WA: University of Washington, College of Forest Resources:
31-43. [7657]
4. Arnold, Ron. 1975. Redwood region faces new park controversy. Western
Conservation Journal. 32(4): 12-16. [8789]
5. Atzet, Thomas; Wheeler, David L. 1984. Preliminary plant associations of
the Siskiyou Mountain Province. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region. 278 p. [9351]
6. Atzet, Tom; Wheeler, David; Smith, Brad; [and others]. 1985. The tanoak
series of the Siskiyou region of southwest Oregon (Part 2). Forestry
Intensified Research. 6(4): 7-10. [8594]
7. Bernard, Stephen R.; Brown, Kenneth F. 1977. Distribution of mammals,
reptiles, and amphibians by BLM physiographic regions and A.W. Kuchler's
associations for the eleven western states. Tech. Note 301. Denver, CO:
U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. 169 p.
[434]
8. Boe, Kenneth N. 1974. Sequoia sempervirens (D. Don) Endl. Redwood. In:
Schopmeyer, C. S., ed. Seeds of woody plants in the United States.
Agriculture Handbook No. 450. Washington: U. S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service: 764-766. [7750]
9. Boe, Kenneth N. 1974. Growth and mortality after regeneration cuttings
in old-growth redwood. Res. Pap. PSW-104. Berkeley, CA: U.S. Department
of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest and Range
Experment Station, 13 p. [11082]
10. Boe, Kenneth N. 1975. Natural seedlings and sprouts after regeneration
cuttings in old-growth redwood. PSW-111. Berkeley, CA: U.S. Department
of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest and Range
Experiment Station. 17 p. [9897]
11. Borchert, Mark; Segotta, Daniel; Purser, Michael D. 1988. Coast redwood
ecological types of southern Monterey County, California. Gen. Tech.
Rep. PSW-107. Berkeley, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service, Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 27 p.
[10225]
12. Durgin, Philip B. 1980. Organic matter content of soil after logging of
fir and redwood forests. Research Note PSW-346. Berkeley, CA: U.S.
Department of Agricultlure, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest and
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Index
Related categories for Species: Sequoia sempervirens
| Redwood
|
 |
