Introductory
WILDLIFE SPECIES: Ursus americanus | Black Bear 



ABBREVIATION : 
URAM

COMMON NAMES : 
   black bear
   American black bear
   cinnamon bear


TAXONOMY : 
The currently accepted scientific name for black bear is Ursus
americanus.  There are 16 subspecies in North America [15,39]:

        Ursus americanus ssp. altifrontalis
        U. americanus ssp. amblyceps
        U. americanus ssp. americanus
        U. americanus ssp. californiensis
        U. americanus ssp. carlottae
        U. americanus ssp. cinnamomum
        U. americanus ssp. emmonsii
        U. americanus ssp. eremicus
        U. americanus ssp. floridanus (Florida black bear)
        U. americanus ssp. hamiltoni
        U. americanus ssp. kermodei
        U. americanus ssp. luteolus  (Louisiana black bear)
        U. americanus ssp. machetes
        U. americanus ssp. perniger
        U. americanus ssp. pugnax
        U. americanus ssp. vancouveri
  


ORDER : 
Carnivora

CLASS : 
Mammal

FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS : 
The Louisiana black bear is federally listed as threatened [50].

OTHER STATUS : 
Black bears are abundant in most parts of the West, but some Eastern
populations are at critically low levels [25].  Black bear is threatened
in South Dakota [48].  The Florida black bear is state-listed as
threatened [47].


COMPILED BY AND DATE : 
S. A. Snyder, July 1991


LAST REVISED BY AND DATE : 
NO-ENTRY


AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION : 
Snyder, S. A. 1991. Ursus americanus. In: Remainder of Citation

WILDLIFE DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
WILDLIFE SPECIES: Ursus americanus | Black Bear 



GENERAL DISTRIBUTION : 
The black bear occurs throughout much of North America from northern
Canada and Alaska south into Mexico and from the Atlantic to the
Pacific.  Populations in east-central and the southern United
States remain in the protected mountains and woodlands of parks and
preserves.  The distribution of each subspecies is listed below [15]:

    U. a. ssp. altifrontalis - the Pacific Northwest Coast from central
                               British Columbia through northern
                               California and inland to the tip of
                               northern Idaho and British Columbia
    U. a. ssp. amblyceps - Colorado, New Mexico, west, Texas and the
                           eastern half of Arizona into northern Mexico;
                           southeastern Utah
    U. a. ssp. americanus - from eastern Montana to the Atlantic; 
                            from Alaska south and east through 
                            Canada to the Atlantic and south to Texas
    U. a. ssp. californiensis - the Central Valley of California, north 
                                through southern Oregon
    U. a. ssp. carlottae - Queen Charlotte Islands, Alaska
    U. a. ssp. cinnamomum - Idaho, western Montana, and Wyoming, eastern 
                            Washington and Oregon, northeastern Utah
    U. a. ssp. emmonsii - southeastern Alaska
    U. a. ssp. eremicus - northeastern Mexico
    U. a. ssp. floridanus - Florida, southern Georgia and Alabama
    U. a. ssp. hamiltoni - the island of Newfoundland
    U. a. ssp. kermodei - the central coast of British Columbia
    U. a. ssp. luteolus - eastern Texas, Lousiana, southern Mississippi
    U. a. ssp. machetes - north-central Mexico
    U. a. ssp. perniger - Kenai Peninsula, Alaska
    U. a. ssp. pugnax - Alexander Archipelago, Alaska
    U. a. spp. vancouveri - Vancouver Island, British Columbia


ECOSYSTEMS : 
FRES10 White-red-jack pine
FRES11 Spruce-fir
FRES12 Longleaf-slash pine
FRES13 Loblolly-shortleaf pine
FRES14 Oak-pine
FRES15 Oak-hickory
FRES16 Oak-gum-cypress
FRES18 Maple-beech-birch
FRES19 Aspen-birch
FRES20 Douglas-fir
FRES21 Ponderosa pine
FRES22 Western white pine
FRES23 Fir-spruce
FRES24 Hemlock-Sitka spruce
FRES25 Larch
FRES26 Lodgepole pine
FRES27 Redwood
FRES28 Western hardwoods
FRES34 Chaparral-mountain shrub
FRES35 Pinyon-juniper
FRES36 Mountain grasslands
FRES37 Mountain meadows
FRES41 Wet grasslands
FRES44 Alpine


STATES : 


    
AL
    
AK
    
AZ
    
AR
    
CA
    
CO
    
CT
    
FL
    
GA
    
ID


    
KY
    
LA
    
ME
    
MA
    
MI
    
MN
    
MS
    
MO
    
MT
    
NV


    
NH
    
NJ
    
NM
    
NY
    
NC
    
OH
    
OR
    
PA
    
RI
    
SC


    
TN
    
TX
    
UT
    
VT
    
VA
    
WA
    
WV
    
WI
    
WY






    
AB
    
BC
    
MB
    
NB
    
NF
    
NT
    
NS
    
ON
    
PE
    
PQ


    
SK
    
YK
    

    

    

    

    

    

    

    







    
MEXICO
    




BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS : 
    1  Northern Pacific Border
    2  Cascade Mountains
    3  Southern Pacific Border
    4  Sierra Mountains
    5  Columbia Plateau
    6  Upper Basin and Range
    7  Lower Basin and Range
    8  Northern Rocky Mountains
    9  Middle Rocky Mountains
   10  Wyoming Basin
   11  Southern Rocky Mountains
   12  Colorado Plateau
   13  Rocky Mountain Piedmont
   14  Great Plains
   15  Black Hills Uplift
   16  Upper Missouri Basin and Broken Lands


KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS : 
   K001  Spruce - cedar - hemlock forest
   K002  Cedar - hemlock - Douglas-fir forest
   K003  Silver fir - Douglas-fir forest
   K004  Fir - hemlock forest
   K005  Mixed conifer forest
   K006  Redwood forest
   K007  Red fir forest
   K008  Lodgepole pine - subalpine forest
   K010  Ponderosa shrub forest
   K011  Western ponderosa forest
   K012  Douglas-fir forest
   K014  Grand fir - Douglas-fir forest
   K015  Western spruce - fir forest
   K018  Pine - Douglas-fir forest
   K019  Arizona pine forest
   K020  Spruce - fir - Douglas-fir forest
   K021  Southwestern spruce - fir foest
   K022  Great Basin pine forest
   K023  Juniper - pinyon woodland
   K025  Alder - ash forest
   K026  Oregon oakwoods
   K028  Mosaic of K002 and K026
   K029  California mixed evergreen forest
   K030  California oakwoods
   K031  Oak - juniper woodland
   K032  Transition between K031 and K037
   K033  Chaparral
   K034  Montane chaparral
   K037  Mountain-mahogany - oak scrub
   K052  Alpine meadows and barren
   K063  Foothills prairie
   K080  Marl - everglades
   K091  Cypress savanna
   K092  Everglades
   K093  Great Lakes spruce - fir forest
   K094  Conifer bog
   K095  Great Lakes pine forest
   K096  Northeastern spruce - fir forest
   K097  Southeastern spruce - fir forest
   K100  Oak - hickory forest
   K102  Beech - maple forest
   K103  Mixed mesophytic forest
   K104  Appalacian oak forest
   K106  Northern hardwoods
   K107  Northern hardwoods - fir forest
   K108  Northern hardwoods - spruce forest
   K109  Transition between K104 and K106
   K110  Northeastern oak - pine forest
   K114  Pocosin
   K115  Sand pine scrub
   K116  Subtropical pine forest


SAF COVER TYPES : 
     1  Jack pine
     5  Balsam fir
    12  Black spruce
    13  Black spruce - tamarack
    14  Northern pin oak
    15  Red pine
    16  Aspen
    17  Pin cherry
    18  Paper birch
    19  Grey birch - red maple
    20  White pine - northern red oak - red maple
    21  Eastern white pine
    22  White pine - hemlock
    23  Eastern hemlock
    24  Hemlock - yellow birch
    25  Sugar maple - beech - yellow birch
    26  Sugar maple - basswood
    27  Sugar maple
    28  Black cherry - maple
    30  Red spruce - yellow birch
    31  Red spruce - sugar maple - beech
    32  Red spruce
    33  Red spruce - balsam fir
    34  Red spruce - Fraser fir
    35  Paper birch - red spruce - balsam fir
    37  Northern white cedar
    38  Tamarack
    39  Black ash - American elm - red maple
    44  Chestnut oak
    45  Pitch pine
    51  White pine - chestnut oak
    55  Northern red oak
    57  Yellow poplar
    58  Yellow poplar - eastern hemlock
    59  Yellow poplar - white oak - northern red oak
    60  Beech - sugar maple
    62  Silver maple - American elm
    63  Cottonwood
    64  Sassafras - persimmon
    69  Sand pine
    70  Longleaf pine
    71  Longleaf pine - scrub oak
    72  Southern scrub oak
    75  Shortleaf pine
    78  Virginia pine - oak
    79  Virginia pine
    80  Loblolly pine - shortleaf pine
    81  Loblolly pine
    82  Loblolly pine - hardwood
    83  Longleaf pine - slash pine 
    84  Slash pine
    85  Slash pine - hardwood
    97  Atlantic white-cedar
    98  Pond pine
   101  Baldcypress
   104  Sweetbay - swamp tupelo - redbay
   105  Tropical hardwoods
   107  White spruce
   109  Hawthorn
   110  Black oak
   111  South Florida slash pine
   201  White spruce
   202  White spruce - paper birch
   203  Balsam poplar
   204  Black spruce
   205  Mountain hemlock
   206  Englemann spruce - subalpine fir
   207  Red fir
   208  Whitebark pine
   209  Bristlecone pine
   210  Interior Douglas-fir
   211  White fir
   212  Western larch
   213  Grand fir
   215  Western white pine
   216  Blue spruce
   217  Aspen
   218  Lodgepole pine
   219  Limber pine
   220  Rocky Mountain juniper
   221  Red alder
   222  Black cottonwood - willow
   223  Sitka spruce
   224  Western hemlock
   225  Western hemlock - Sitka spruce
   226  Coastal true fir - hemlock
   227  Western redcedar - western hemlock
   228  Western redcedar
   229  Pacific Douglas-fir
   230  Douglas-fir - western hemlock
   231  Port-Orford-cedar
   232  Redwood
   233  Oregon white oak
   234  Douglas-fir - tanoak - Pacific madrone
   235  Cottonwood - willow
   237  Interior ponderosa pine
   239  Pinyon - juniper
   240  Arizona cypress
   241  Western live oak
   243  Sierra Nevada mixed conifer
   244  Pacific ponderosa pine - Douglas-fir
   245  Pacific ponderosa pine
   246  California black oak
   247  Jeffrey pine
   249  Canyon live oak
   251  White spruce - aspen
   252  Paper birch
   253  Black spruce - white spruce
   254  Black spruce - paper birch
   256  California mixed subalpine


SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES : 
NO-ENTRY


PLANT COMMUNITIES : 
Black bears are very adaptable and inhabit a wide variety of plant
communities.  In the Southeast black bears inhabit swampy areas of the
Coastal Plain, bays, and flatwoods, as well as oak (Quercus
spp.)-hickory (Carya spp.) and mixed mesophytic forests [17,39].  In the
Northeast black bears inhabit beech (Fagus spp.)-maple (Acer spp.)-birch
(Betula spp.) forests and mixed hardwood forests interspersed with red
spruce (Picea rubra) and balsam fir (Abies balsamea) [1,39,41].  In the
Southwest black bears are restricted to mountainous, vegetated areas in
pinyon (Pinus spp.)-juniper (Juniperus spp.) and chaparral types [39].
In the Northwest black bears are found in spruce (Picea spp.)-western
redcedar (Thuja plicata)-hemlock (Tsuga spp.) forests as well as pine
(Pinus spp.) and fir (Abies spp.) forests [39].
 


REFERENCES : 
NO-ENTRY

BIOLOGICAL DATA AND HABITAT REQUIREMENTS
WILDLIFE SPECIES: Ursus americanus | Black Bear 



TIMING OF MAJOR LIFE HISTORY EVENTS : 
Breeding Season - May and June; mate about every 2 years
Gestation - delayed implantation of 6 to 7 months, until October or
            November
Birthing Season - Late November through February; one to three cubs average;
                  cubs remain with mother 1 or 2 years
Age of Maturity - 5 to 7 years, can mature in 3 years
Life Span - may exceed 30 years, but 10 years in the wild is average
Hibernation - 4 to 7 months between October and May; lasts longer in 
              cold climates
[7,11,17,25,39]


PREFERRED HABITAT : 
Black bears prefer forested and shrubby areas but use wet meadows, high
tidelands, ridgetops, burned areas, riparian areas, and avalanche chutes
[39].  They also frequent swampy hardwood and conifer forests [32].
Black bears prefer mesic over dry sites and timbered over open areas
[43].  After emerging from their winter dens in spring, they seek
southerly slopes at lower elevations for forage and move to northerly
and easterly slopes at higher elevations as summer progresses
[2,21,23,25,37,43,46].


COVER REQUIREMENTS : 
Black bears use dense cover for hiding and thermal protection, as well
as for bedding [25].  They climb trees to escape danger and use forested
areas as travel corriders.  Black bears hibernate during winter and may
build dens in tree cavities, under logs, rocks, in banks, caves, or
culverts, and in shallow depressions [17,38,44,46].


FOOD HABITS : 
Black bears eat a wide variey of foods, relying most heavily on grasses,
herbs, fruits, and mast [25].  They also feed on carrion and insects
such as carpenter ants (Campanotus spp.), yellow jackets (Vespula spp.),
bees (Apidae), and termites (Isoptera) [4,14].  Black bears sometimes
kill and eat small rodents and ungulate fawns.  Some common plant foods
are listed below: oak (Quercus spp.) and hazel (Corylus spp.) mast,
mountain ash (Sorbus spp.), tree cambium, dogwood (Cornus spp.),
manzanita and kinnikinnick (Arctostaphylos spp.), cranberry (Vibernum
spp.), blueberry and huckleberry (Vaccinium spp.), raspberry and
blackberry (Rubus spp.), rose hips (Rosa spp.), gooseberry (Ribes spp.),
sarsaparilla (Aralia nudicaulis), rhubarb (Polygonum alaskanum), lupine
(Lupinus spp.), northern bedstraw (Galium boreale), lousewort
(Pedicularis spp.), Labrador tea (Ledum groenlandicus), California
coffeeberry (Rhamnus californicus), squawroot (Conopholis americana),
dandelion (Taraxacum officinale), clover (Trifolium spp.), thistle
(Cirsium spp.), buffaloberry (Shepherdia canadensis), lomatium (Lomatium
spp.), cowparsnip (Heracleum lanatum), and pine nuts
[4,21,24,25,26,27,28,37,39,41,46].  Black bears also eat salmon
(Oncorynchus spp.) and raid orchards, beehives, and crop fields
[9,27,39].  They pick from garbage dumps and trash bins of private
homes.  Black bears may occasionally prey on domestic sheep and pigs
when their natual foods are scarce [26].


PREDATORS : 
Black bear predators include man, grizzly bears (Ursus arctos), and other
black bears.  Coyotes (Canis latrans) may prey on cubs [25].


MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS : 
Black bears are as much an important game species as they are the center
of controversy across the continent.  Because their behavior has been
little understood, black bears have been feared and hated [25].  They
have also been portrayed as harmless play toys by film and television.
Their low reproductive rate and late sexual maturation make them
vulnerable to overharvest [13].  Their active foraging habits and
habitat encroachment by man have created man-bear conflicts
[9,32,34,41].

Logging can have both positive and negative effects on black bear
populations.  Many studies show that black bears will use clearcuts
older than 10 years, but in some areas cuts are not used for 20 years
[24,31,45,46].  Black bears will use cutover areas if fruit-producing
shrubs are present and hiding cover is available.  A study in northern
Idaho revealed that selection-cuts were the most important habitat
component for black bears because these units provided more food and
cover compared to clearcuts or mature stands [45,46].  Intensive
scarification of clearcuts can kill important food plants or eliminate
them for long time periods [33,45,46].  Many authors list management
strategies for timber harvesting in bear habitat [36,41,43,45,46].
Hannah [18] listed management techniques for enhancing oak stands to
create valuable mast crops.


REFERENCES : 
NO-ENTRY

FIRE EFFECTS AND USE
WILDLIFE SPECIES: Ursus americanus | Black Bear 



DIRECT FIRE EFFECTS ON ANIMALS : 
Direct fire-caused mortality probably has little effect on populations
as a whole [30].


HABITAT RELATED FIRE EFFECTS : 
Fires that favor early and mid-seral fruit-producing shrubs and
plentiful grasses and forbs are beneficial to bears.  Many bear foods
are enhanced by fire [3,8,16,19,20].  Fire can also provide a medium for
insect invasion, which could provide food.  Huckleberries and
blueberries are more productive on recently burned sites compared to
unburned sites [6,16,19,20].  However, hot, duff-consuming fires can
destroy shallow rhizomes [16].  Fire can also reduce important food
species in the short-term [30].  A study in western Montana found that
berry production was low for globe huckleberry (Vaccinium globulare) in
mature stands and stands burned 60 to 100 years previously [33].  Berry
production was best on sites burned between 25 and 60 years previously
or on clearcuts that were broadcast burned 8 to 15 years previously.


FIRE USE : 
Fire can be used to create and maintain seral plant communities
important to bears for food.  Young and Beecham [46] recommended the
adoption of a "let burn" policy for wildfires and the use of prescribed
fire for enhancing bear food.  Unsworth and others [43] suggested
broadcast burning logging slash (or leaving it untreated) rather than
piling and burning, which can destroy some important shrubs.  Landers
[30] stated that burning at 3-year intervals in open slash pine (Pinus
elliottii) forests would optimize fruit production in blackberries,
blueberries, and common gallberries (Ilex glabra).  However, certain
fire-sensitive fruit producers should be protected for longer time
periods.  Landers listed recommendations for burning in pocosins and
hardwood swamps.


REFERENCES : 
NO-ENTRY

References for species: Ursus americanus

1. Alt, Gary L.; Matula, George J.; Alt, Floyd W.; Lindzey, James S. 1980. Dynamics of home range and movements of adult black bears in northeastern Pennsylvania. In: Martinka, Clifford J.; McArthur, Katherine L., eds. Bears--their biology and management: Proceedings, 4th international conference on bear research and management; 1977 February 21-24; Kalispell, MT. Conference Series No. 3. Washington, DC ?: Bear Biology Association: 131-136. [14752]

2. Amstrup, Steven C.; Beecham, John. 1976. Activity patterns of radio-collared black bears in Idaho. Journal of Wildlife Management. 40(2): 340-348. [9505]

3. Asherin, Duane A. 1973. Prescribed burning effects on nutrition, production and big game use of key northern Idaho browse species. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho. 96 p. Dissertation. [360]

4. Beeman, Larry E.; Pelton, Michael R. 1980. Seasonal foods and feeding ecology of black bears in the Smoky Mountains. In: Martinka, Clifford J.; McArthur, Katherine L., eds. Bears--their biology and management: Proceedings, 4th international conference on bear research and management; 1977 February 21-24; Kalispell, MT. Conference Series No. 3. Washington, DC ?: Bear Biology Association: 141-147. [14753]

5. Bernard, Stephen R.; Brown, Kenneth F. 1977. Distribution of mammals, reptiles, and amphibians by BLM physiographic regions and A.W. Kuchler's associations for the eleven western states. Tech. Note 301. Denver, CO: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. 169 p. [434]

6. Books, David J. 1972. Little Sioux Burn: year two. Naturalist. 23(3&4): 2-7. [11550]

7. Burt, William H.; Grossenheider, Richard P. 1976. A field guide to the mammals. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. 289 p. [13685]

8. Edwards, R. Y. 1954. Fire and the decline of a mountain caribou herd. Journal of Wildlife Management. 18(4): 521-526. [8394]

9. Elowe, Kenneth D.; Dodge, Wendell E. 1989. Factors affecting black bear reproductive success and cub survival. Journal of Wildlife Management. 53(4): 962-968. [10339]

10. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Washington, DC: Society of American Foresters. 148 p. [905]

11. Folk, G. Edgar Jr.; Hunt, Jill M.; Folk, Mary A. 1980. Further evidence for hibernation of bears. In: Martinka, Clifford J.; McArthur, Katherine L., eds. Bears--their biology and management: Proceedings, 4th international conference on bear research and management; 1977 February 21-24; Kalispell, MT. Conference Series No. 3. Washington, DC ?: Bear Biology Association: 43-47. [14750]

12. Garrison, George A.; Bjugstad, Ardell J.; Duncan, Don A.; [and others]. 1977. Vegetation and environmental features of forest and range ecosystems. Agric. Handb. 475. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 68 p. [998]

13. Gill, R. Bruce; Beck, Thomas D. I. 1990. Black bear management plan: 1990-1995. Division Report No. 15; DOW-R-D-15-90. Denver, CO: Department of Natural Resources, Colorado Division of Wildlife. 44 p. [17020]

14. Graber, David M.; White, Marshall. 1983. Black bear food habits in Yosemite National Park. In: Meslow, E. Charles, ed. Bears--their biology and management: Proceedings, 5th international conference on bear research and management; 1980 February 10-13; Madison, WI. [Place of publication unknown]. International Association for Bear Research and Management: 1-10. [14762]

15. Young, D. D.; Beecham, J. J. 1986. Black bear habitat use at Priest Lake, Idaho. In: Zager, Peter, ed. Bears--their biology and management: Proceedings, International conference on bear research and management; 1983 February; Grand Canyon, AZ. [Place of publication unknown]: International Association forBear Research and Management: 73-80. [14756]

16. Hall, Ivan V.; Shay, Jennifer, M. 1981. The biological flora of Canada. 3. Vaccinium vitis-idaea L. var. minus Lodd. Supplementary Account. Canadian Field-Naturalist. 95(4): 434-464. [9125]

17. Hamilton, Robert J.; Marchinton, R. Larry. 1980. Denning and related activity of black bears in the coastal plain of North Carolina. In: Martinka, Clifford J.; McArthur, Katherine L., eds. Bears--their biology and management: Proceedings, 4th international conference on bear research and management; 1977 February 21-24; Kalispell, MT. Conference Series No. 3. Washington, DC ?: Bear Biology Association: 121-126. [14751]

18. Hannah, Peter R. 1987. Regeneration methods for oaks. Northern Journal of Applied Forestry. 4: 97-101. [3728]

19. Hanson, William A. 1979. Preliminary results of the Bear Creek fire effects studies. Proposed open file report. Anchorage, AK: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management, Anchorage District Office. 83 p. [6400]

20. Heinselman, Miron L. 1973. Fire in the virgin forests of the Boundary Waters Canoe Area, Minnesota. Quaternary Research. 3: 329-382. [282]

21. Hatler, David F. 1972. Food habits of black bears in interior Alaska. Canadian Field-Naturalist. 86(1): 17-31. [10389]

22. Hugie, Roy Dean. 1982. Black bear ecology and management in the northeastern conifer-deciduous forests of Maine. Missoula, MT: University of Montana. 203 p. Dissertation. [14904]

23. Irwin, Larry L.; Hammond, Forrest M. 1985. Managing black bear habitats for food items in Wyoming. Wildlife Society Bulletin. 13: 477-483. [3034]

24. Jonkel, Charles J.; Cowan, Ian McT. 1971. The black bear in the spruce-fir forest. Wildlife Monographs. 27: [9912]

25. Jonkel, Charles. 1978. Black, brown (grizzly) and polar bears. In: Schmidt, John L.; Gilbert, Douglas L., eds. Big game of North America. Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole Books: 227-248. [14702]

26. Jorgensen, Carole J. 1983. Bear-sheep interactions, Targhee National Forest. In: Meslow, E. Charles, ed. Bears--their biology and management: Proceedings, 5th international conference on bear research and management; 1980 February 10-13; Madison, WI. [Place of publication unknown]. International Association for Bear Research and Management: 191-200. [14764]

27. Kelleyhouse, David G. 1980. Habitat utilization by black bears in northern California. In: Martinka, Clifford J.; McArthur, Katherine L., eds. Bears--their biology and management: Proceedings, 4th international conference on bear research and management; 1977 February 21-24; Kalispell, MT. Conference Series No. 3. Washington, DC ?: Bear Biology Association: 221-227. [14755]

28. Kendall, Katherine C. 1980. Use of pine nuts by grizzly and black bears in the Yellowstone area. Int. Conf. Bear Research and Management. 5: 166-173. [8385]

29. Kuchler, A. W. 1964. United States [Potential natural vegetation of the conterminous United States]. Special Publication No. 36. New York: American Geographical Society. 1:3,168,000; colored. [3455]

30. Landers, J. Larry. 1987. Prescribed burning for managing wildlife in southeastern pine forests. In: Dickson, James G.; Maughan, O. Eugene, eds. Managing southern forests for wildlife and fish: a proceedings; [Date of conference unknown]; [Location of conference unknown]. Gen. Tech. Rep. SO-65. New Orleans, LA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station: 19-27. [11562]

31. Lindzey, Frederick G.; Meslow, E. Charles. 1977. Home range and habitat use by black bears in southwestern Washington. Journal of Wildlife Management. 41: 413-425. [14902]

32. Manville, Albert M. 1983. Human impact on black bear in Michigan's Lower Peninsula. In: Meslow, E. Charles, ed. Bears--their biology and management: Proceedings, 5th international conference on bear research and management; 1980 February 10-13; Madison, WI. [Place of publication unknown]. International Association for Bear Research and Management: 20-33. [14763]

33. Martin, Patricia A. E. 1979. Productivity and taxonomy of the Vaccinium globulare, V. membranaceum complex in western Montana. Missoula, MT: University of Montana. 136 p. Thesis. [9130]

34. Meagher, Mary; Phillips, Jerry R. 1983. Restoration of natural populations of grizzly and black bears in Yellowstone National Park. In: Meslow, E. Charles, ed. Bears: their biology and management: Proceedings, 5th international conference of bear research and management; 1980; Madison, WI. [Place of publication unknown]: International Association for Bear Researchand Management: 152-158. [17018]

35. Mitchell, Glenn E. 1950. Wildlife-forest relationships in the Pacific Northwest region. Journal of Forestry. 48: 26-30. [6923]

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Related categories for Wildlife Species: Ursus americanus | Black Bear