KUCHLER TYPE
KUCHLER TYPE: Nebraska sandhills prairie



KUCHLER-TYPE-NUMBER : 
K075

PHYSIOGNOMY : 
open to medium dense grassland, medium tall to tall


OCCURRENCE : 
The sandhills region of Nebraska covers approximately 18,000 square
miles (5 million ha) [24,37,43] of central Nebraska and southern South
Dakota [33].  The east-west axis of the sandhills is approximately 265
miles (424 km); the north-south axis is 130 miles (208 km) [49].


COMPILED BY AND DATE : 
Janet Sullivan, September 1994


LAST REVISED BY AND DATE : 
NO-ENTRY


AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION : 
Sullivan, Janet. 1994. Nebraska sandhills prairie. In: Remainder of Citation


Kuchler Type Index
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KUCHLER TYPE DESCRIPTION


PHYSIOGRAPHY : 
The Nebraska sandhills are characterized by dune topography.  The hills
are mostly round-topped or conical and smooth.  They were formed by
wind, and continue to be modified by wind [46].  Some areas are very
choppy, with no distinct long ridges; other areas have distinct ridges
with relatively broad valleys [39].  In between the hills, sandy basins
and valleys contain groundwater lakes and marshes.  There is very little
surface runoff.  Many streams and rivers flow out of the sandhills, but
these are largely fed by groundwater underflow [13,39,47].  The Nebraska
sandhills range in elevation from 2,000 feet (609 m) at the eastern edge
to 4,200 feet (1,280 m) in the northwest [49].

Burzlaff [13] described the Nebraska sandhills using a 'range site'
concept, and named three types:  dry valley range sites, choppy sands
range sites, and rolling sands range sites.  Dry valley sites are the
flat valleys between choppy sandhills or rolling sands, as small as 3 to
4 acres (1.2-1.6 ha) or as large as 320 acres (a half-section [1.3 sq
km]).  Choppy sands are composed mainly of stabilized dune sands and are
characteristically steep (20-40% slope) with variations in relief of 80
to 100 feet (24-30 m).  Rolling sands sites are gently undulating hills
and valleys, with 80 to 100 feet (24-30 m) in relief but without the
steep slopes of the choppy sandhills.


CLIMATE : 
In Nebraska, mean annual precipitation ranges from 36 inches (914 mm) in
the southeastern corner to 15 or 16 inches (381-406 mm) in the western
end of the state.  The sandhills are mostly between the 25 and 16 inch
isohyets [39].  In this area of Nebraska, 80 percent of the annual
precipitation falls between April and September [40], with peak amounts
falling from April to June [4].  Rainfall is often distributed in a
patchy fashion, creating frequent, local drought [40].  Wind has been a
major factor in shaping the sandhills.  There are frequent episodes of
high velocity winds that blow for days at a time [39].


SOILS : 
The soils of Nebraska sandhills prairie are mainly fine-grained sands
and sandy loams of the Balentine-Dunday association [24].  Coarser sands
are found on the dune tops.  Very little soil formation has occurred
since the dunes were formed, so the soils contain little or no organic
matter [24,47].  In the eastern portion of the Nebraska sandhills
prairie, nondune soils are derived from glacial drift and loess; the
drift consists of boulders, gravel, sand, and clay.  The loess consists
of silt, clay, and fine sand [39].  Soil profiles are poorly defined
[13].  The sandy soils are low in nutrient value [39,49].  The soil pH
ranges from 6.55 on choppy sands sites to 6.8 on dry valley sites [13].

Most dry valley sites have excellent drainage, but where there are
underlying clays the drainage is poor.  Choppy sands are usually
excessively well drained and rolling sands sites are adequately to
excessively well drained [13].  The surface sands dry out rapidly after
rainfall, but just below the surface abundant water is held in capillary
spaces [39,40].  The Nebraska sandhills have been described as an
enormous sponge soaking up and storing immense quantities of water.  It
was estimated that the 20,000 square miles (5 million ha) of Nebraska
sandhills can store 600 million acre-feet of water [13].


VEGETATION : 
The Nebraska sandhills prairie is a perennial grassland containing a
mixture of tallgrass and shortgrass prairie species and includes both
warm-season (mostly C-4 species) and cool-season (mostly C-3 species)
taxa [24,40,47].  Patches of open sand are characteristic of the
Nebraska sandhills prairie [24,39,47].  Lists of dominant species differ
by locale and range condition.  The most frequently listed dominants
include prairie sandreed (Calamovilfa longifolia, C-4), sand bluestem
(Andropogon gerardii var. paucipilus, C-4), needle-and-thread grass
(Stipa comata, C-3), little bluestem (Schizychyrium scoparium, C-4), big
bluestem (A. gerardii, C-4), blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis, C-4), hairy
grama (B. hirsutus, C-4), and sand dropseed (Sporobolus cryptandrus,
C-4) [7,33,37].  Differences in dominants have been ascribed to
topography, aspect, time of year, stage of succession, and grazing and
fire history [7].

Sims [42] described the Nebraska sandhills vegetation as an
Andropogon-Calamovilfa-Stipa community which also includes grama
(Bouteloua spp.) and cool-season invaders such as Kentucky bluegrass
(Poa pratensis) and smooth brome (Bromus inermis) [42].

Other major components include sand lovegrass (Eragrostis trichodes,
C-4), sand sagebrush (Artemisia filifolia), sand milkweed (Asclepias
arenaria), sedge (Carex heliophila), erigeron (Erigeron spp.),
flaxflowered gilia (Gilia longifolia), Indian ricegrass (Oryzopsis
hymenoides, C-3), switchgrass (Panicum virgatum, C-4), and silky
prairie-clover (Petalostemum vilosum) [24,33].

According to Weaver and Albertson [47] the most important grasses in the
bunchgrass community (their term for the major grass community in the
Nebraska sandhills) include little bluestem, sand bluestem, prairie
sandreed, and needle-and-thread grass.  Soapweed yucca (Yucca glauca) is
also characteristic.  Little bluestem was the most frequent and abundant
grass until the drought of the 1930's.  Sand bluestem has increased
since the decline in little bluestem.  In many areas needle-and-thread
grass has been grazed out.  Sand dropseed was not previously abundant in
the sandhills, but has increased in abundance with grazing, along with
prairie sandreed.  In the southwestern and western portion of the
Nebraska sandhills prairie, sand sagebrush is an abundant shrub,
associated with prairie sandreed and sand bluestem [47].  Ponderosa pine
(Pinus ponderosa) occurs on the western and north-central margins of
Nebraska sandhills prairie, reaching its eastern limit in the Niobrara
River Valley [43].

Pool [39] recognized a number of different communities on the Nebraska
sandhills.  The primary community, covering 60 percent of the total
area, is the upland prairie grass community dominated by bunchgrasses.
His list is similar to that of others [7,33,37,40,47], except that big
bluestem is not listed as a codominant [39].

Potvin and Harrison [40] recognized three main vegetation types on the
Arapaho Prairie, a preserve in the Nebraska sandhills prairie owned by
the Nature Conservancy:

        Ridge--dominated by hairy grama, prairie sandreed, and little
            bluestem
        Valley--dominated by prairie sandreed, needle-and-thread grass,
            and blue grama
        Slope--the most common type, dominated by blue grama, prairie
            sandreed, and hairy grama.  

This division resembles the three range site types of Burzlaff [13].  He
named four structural vegetation units (unions) based on the
characteristics of the dominant species: 1) Festuca octoflora union,
characterized by species that make their appearance early in the spring,
2) Stipa comata union, composed of species that start growth in
mid-spring and become dormant during summer heat, resuming growth in the
fall with adequate moisture, 3) Sporobolus cryptandrus union, consisting
of species that start growth in late spring and reach anthesis by
mid-summer, and 4) Calamolvilfa longifolia union, made up of the tall,
warm-season grasses that provide the true prairie aspect of the Nebraska
sandhill prairie.  Each of the four unions can be found on the three
types of range sites.  However, the relative abundance and dominance of
characteristic species changes with the range site and with
environmental conditions.  The latter two unions are the most abundant
and characteristic of most of the Nebraska sandhills prairie [13].



WILDLIFE : 
The Nebraska sandhills prairie supports a variety of wildlife species,
including many big game species:  pronghorn (Antilocapra americana),
white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), mule deer (Odocoileus
hemionus), and bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis).  Small game animals
include eastern cottontail rabbit (Silvilagus floridanus), fox squirrel
([Sciurus niger], found along river bottoms), white-tailed jackrabbit
(Lepus townsendii), and black-tailed jackrabbit (Lepus californicus).
Other mammals include prairie dogs (Cynomys spp.), house mouse (Mus
musculus), deer mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus), western harvest mouse
(Reithrodontomys megalotis), northern grasshopper mouse (Onychomys
leucogaster), Ord's kangaroo rat (Dipodomys ordii), plains pocket mouse
(Perognathus flavescens), least shrew (Cryptotis parva), eastern mole
(Scalopus aquaticus), ground squirrels (Spermophilus spp.), coyote
(Canis latrans), kit fox (Vulpes macrotis), red fox (V. vulpes), swift
fox (V. velox), gray fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus), badger (Taxidea
taxus), long-tailed weasel (Mustela frenata), and bobcat (Lynx rufus)
[11,19].

Numerous species of birds occur on the Nebraska sandhills prairie,
including greater prairie chicken (Tympanuchus cupido), sharp-tailed
grouse (T. phasianellus), mourning dove (Zenaida macroura), killdeer
(Charadrius vociferus), western kingbird (Tyrannus verticalis), swallows
(Hirundo spp.), sparrows, (Spizella spp.), western meadowlark (Sturnella
neglecta), red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis), Swainson's hawk (B.
swainsoni), rough-legged hawk (B. lagopus), sharp-shinned hawk
(Accipiter striatus), and American kestrel (Falco sparverius).  Other
raptors include short-eared owl (Asio flammeus) and burrowing owl
(Athene cunicularia) [11,19,24,55].  Waterfowl present as migrants (M)
or as summer residents (S) include Canada goose (Branta canadensis) (M,
possibly S), mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) (S), green-winged teal (A.
crecca) (M,S), blue-winged teal (A. discors) (M,S), ring-necked duck
(Aythya collaris) (M), ruddy duck (Oxyura jamaicensis) (M, possibly S),
and common merganser (Mergus merganser) (M, possibly S) [24,55].

Numerous species of reptiles occur on the Nebraska sandhills prairie
including western box turtle (Terrapene ornata), snapping turtle
(Chelydra serpentina), racerunner (Cnemidophorus sexlineatus), great
plains skink (Eumeces obsoletus), lesser earless lizard (Holbrookia
maculata), eastern fence lizard (Sceloporus nudulatus), garter snakes
(Thamnophis spp.), western hognose snake (Heterodon nasicus), milk snake
(Lampropeltis triangulum), and racer (Coluber constrictor) [11].

The former ranges of American bison (Bos bison), elk (Cervus elaphus),
and black-footed ferret (Mustela nigripes) included the Nebraska
sandhills region [12,19].


ECOLOGICAL RELATIONSHIPS : 
Soil moisture is the principal factor in Nebraska sandhills prairie
vegetation distribution.  The sand allows rapid and deep penetration of
precipitation [24].  The expected distribution of prairie species along
a moisture gradient from dry to wet is sideoats grama (dry sites),
little bluestem, indiangrass (Sorghastrum nutans), big bluestem,
switchgrass, and prairie cordgrass (Spartina pectinata) (wet sites).
The more mesic species, such as the bluestems, switchgrass, and
indiangrass, can be supported in the valleys of Nebraska sandhills
prairie.  Within community diversity is usually low; there is a tendency
for individual stands to be dominated by one or two species [5].  Big
bluestem, needle-and-thread grass and other shallow-rooted species,
including Canada wildrye (Elymus canadensis), blue grama, prairie
cordgrass, and western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), are more
abundant in valleys where the water table is near the surface [4,24].
North-facing slopes are dominated by needle-and-thread grass (average
37% cover); south-facing slopes are dominated by prairie sandreed (27%
cover).  Hilltops are dominated by both species, with 20 and 22 percent
cover respectively [9].  Sand bluestem occupies dry upland sand dunes;
big bluestem is restricted to adjacent, subirrigated meadows [4].

A characteristic feature of the Nebraska sandhills prairie is the
blowout, an area denuded of vegetation due to rapid wind erosion.
Blowouts occur where the vegetation is depleted due to fire or
overgrazing.  The sparse vegetation leaves the soil vulnerable to wind
erosion, which in turn creates conditions in which plants cannot
establish [47].  A blowout can be active for many years, and can reach a
depth of 100 feet and a circumference of more than 600 feet.  Blowouts
can become large and deep enough to become ponds [39].  Once a blowout
becomes at least partially stabilized, it is usually colonized by
blowout grass (Redfieldia flexuosa) and/or lance-leaved psoralea
(Psoralea lanceolata).  The vegetation remains sparse even after several
years.  Sandhill muhly (Muhlenbergia pungens) may invade the upper
slopes of a blowout, but little bluestem and other bunchgrasses are
usually absent from early succession [47].  Invaders of blowouts after
blowout grass has stabilized the area include spiderwort (Tradescantia
virginiana), annual umbrella plant (Eriogonum annuum), plains
yellow-primrose (Calyophus serrulatus=Oenothera serrulata), showy
peavine (Lathyrus ornatus var. flavescens), painted milkvetch
(Astragalus ceramicus=Phaca longifolia), prairie spurge (Euphorbia
missurica=Euphorbia petaloidea) and fineleaf hymenopappus (Hymenopappus
filifolius) [47].

Sand draws, which are steep, dry streambeds in which occasional
torrents of water cause rapid erosion, are colonized by clammy-weed
(Polanisia dodecandra ssp. trachysperma) and cristatella (P. jamesii) [39].

KUCHLER TYPE VALUE AND USE
KUCHLER TYPE: Nebraska sandhills prairie



FORESTRY VALUES : 
In the Niobrara River Valley, ponderosa pine was historically restricted
to canyon slopes by fire and competition from grasses.  In the
postsettlement period, fire frequency has decreased and grazing has
reduced grass cover, allowing ponderosa pine to establish in new areas
away from canyon slopes.  This expansion is likely to continue in the
absence of frequent fire [43].  Ponderosa pine stands also originated in
the early twentieth century, when ponderosa pine was planted in many
areas of the Nebraska sandhills prairie as an experiment to test the
assertions of Bessey, who hypothesized that ponderosa pine was present
on the sandhills in an earlier period [39].


RANGE VALUES : 
Nebraska sandhills prairie is valued primarily for cattle range [9].  It
is one of the major livestock producing grasslands [13].  The sandy soil
is too unstable to support much cultivation [9,13,24,47].


WILDLIFE VALUES : 



OTHER VALUES : 



MANAGEMENT CONCERNS : 
The floristic composition of Nebraska sandhills prairie has changed
dramatically in the last century.  This change is partly explained by
the near-extirpation of American bison (and its complete loss from
Nebraska sandhills prairie) [49].  Domestic cattle grazing and the
continued or increased presence of pronghorn and deer create impacts
that are different in nature and intensity from those that were created
by the bison [1,49].  Changes in species composition and total cover
have occurred since the early 1900's [7].  A 1940 report stated that the
proportions of little bluestem, sand bluestem, and blowout grass were
lower than in the early 1900's, whereas the proportions of sand dropseed
and sandhill muhly were higher.  The decline of little bluestem as
reported in 1940 was probably a result of the great drought of the
1930's [7].

Extensive cattle grazing of the Nebraska sandhills prairie began in the
early 1900's and is still practiced.  Decreasers with grazing include
blowout grass, junegrass (Koeleria macrantha), sand bluestem, and sand
lovegrass.  Increasers include blue grama, hairy grama, little bluestem,
prairie sandreed, needle-and-thread grass, sand dropseed, and sandhill
muhly [9].

Degeneration of Nebraska sandhills prairie due to overgrazing is not
severe; the fragility of the soil encouraged more caution about grazing
than was practiced on firmer soils [42].  Nebraska sandhills prairie
productivity improved during the first half of the twentieth century in
contrast to the deterioration of many other grazing lands in the same
period [13].

A study evaluated the effects of summer versus spring mowing and burning
on needlegrass-bluestem (Stipa-Andropogon) prairie in eastern Nebraska.
Summer mowing favors the dominant porcupine grass (Stipa spartea), a
cool-season species, whereas spring treatments favor the warm-season
grasses such as big bluestem.  Canopy cover and number and height of
flowering stems were measured.  Spring mowing and spring burning effects
were more similar to each other than they were to summer mowing effects
[27].

KUCHLER TYPE FIRE ECOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT
KUCHLER TYPE: Nebraska sandhills prairie



FUELS, FLAMMABILITY, AND FIRE OCCURRENCE : 
Nebraska sandhills prairie occurs in a climate that is not conducive to
rapid decomposition of dead plant materials.  Therefore, dry fuel and
mulch build up within a short period of time [22].  Old stems and
leaves of little bluestem persist for several years, furnishing abundant
fuel for fires [47].

A single year's accumulation of plant material is capable of supporting
a grassland fire at any time of the growing season.  In addition,
regrowth following a spring fire produces enough fuel to support a fire
in the fall of the same year [8].  Fire during the same growing season
is less likely if the first fire occurred after May.  Summer and fall
fires are likely to decrease the potential for burning in the early
spring of the following year [8,9].  The flammability of grasses varies
to some extent over the growing season.  The probability of a fire
occuring in ungrazed, native bluestem grassland may be high even before
the grasses enter dormancy [8].

Ignition is probably more important than fuel availability or condition
in the initiation and spread of Nebraska sandhills prairie fires [8].
Early observers noted frequent prairie fires from spring through fall.
Fire is and was a frequent event in the central Great Plains.  Historic
fire frequencies were greatly influenced by human-caused ignitions, both
by Native Americans and European settlers [52].  Many fires were ignited
by lightning during electrical storms.  Peak lightning fire frequencies
occurred in July and August [8,9].  Moore [36] attributed 32 percent of
presettlement fires in the north-central plains to Indians, 14 percent
to Europeans, and the remainder he left unascribed due to lack of
information.  Most of those were probably caused by lightning.
Presently, range fires are not uncommon, but their extent and recurrence
are limited by human efforts at fire suppression and control [10].
Currently, lightning is the main source of ignition; sparks from trains
also start a number of fires each year [49].  Kirsch and Kruse [30]
observed four fires started by lightning in a single afternoon in 1958.
In South Dakota, eleven fires were ignited within a 20 by 40 mile (32 by
64 km) area within a 2-week period in 1971 [30].  In May 1965 a
lightning fire, driven by 48 mile-per-hour (76 k/hr) winds, burned over
18,000 acres (7,200 ha) of grassland and forest (including over 42% of
the 26,000 acres [10,400 ha] of planted pine) in the Nebraska sandhills
prairie [49].


FIRE EFFECTS ON SITE : 
Fire in grasslands generally causes soils to warm earlier in spring, and
achieve temperatures that average 9 degrees Fahrenheit (5 deg C) higher
than on unburned sites [5,31,52].  In Missouri little bluestem-big
bluestem grasslands, the maximum spring soil surface temperatures
were 5.22 to 17 degrees Fahrenheit (2.9-9.8 deg C) higher on burned
plots than on unburned plots [32].  Soils in burned grasslands usually
have slightly higher pH than in unburned grasslands due to the release
of alkaline earth metals.  In neutral or alkaline soils this usually has
little effect, but in acidic grassland soils, pH increases may improve
germination or have other effects on vegetative responses [46].

Spring and summer fires reduce vegetative cover and increase the
likelihood of blowout formation [39].  Burzlaff [13] suggested that the
limiting of fire has been of major importance in stabilizing dune soils
in the Nebraska sandhills prairie.

Burning recycles nutrients and releases energy stored in aboveground
plant biomass.  Fire effects differ depending on fire frequency and the
length of fire-free intervals.  The species- and nutrient-specific
effects of fire on nutrient uptake suggest that fire exclusion has the
potential to effect long-term changes in species composition in
nutrient-limited ecosystems, including Nebraska sandhills prairie [38].


FIRE EFFECTS ON VEGETATION : 
The effects of fire on grasses depend on climate, site and topography,
soil moisture, site condition (including fire frequency), species
composition, and timing of fire.  Spring burning usually favors
warm-season species over cool-season species.  The later the fire occurs
in spring, but still prior to the emergence of green shoots, the greater
the production of warm-season species in tallgrass prairie [31].
However, many grasses respond negatively to burning in dry areas
(approximately 275-300 mm summer rainfall) [31], or during drought
[14,52].  Fire followed by drought can kill enough little bluestem and
other bunchgrasses to create blowout conditions [39].  Fire combined
with drought reduced little bluestem cover as much as 42 percent in
Texas ranges; burning in wet years resulted in an 81 percent increase
in little bluestem cover [51].  In tallgrass prairie, big bluestem
almost always increases after burning, as does indiangrass and probably
switchgrass.  But the amount of increase depends on the community state
before burning, as well as the time of fire occurrence [16,31,53].

Fire consumes excessive mulch, which builds up rapidly in Nebraska
sandhills prairie and retards plant growth.  However, the exposure
of bunchgrass bases contributes to drought stress [22].  

On Nebraska sandhills prairie choppy sands areas burned in May,
vegetative cover in August averaged 16 percent less on burned sites than
on adjacent unburned sites.  By 2 years following the fire, vegetative
cover averaged 8 percent less than on adjacent unburned sites [9].  One
growing season after a May, 1965 wildfire, forb cover and total
vegetative cover were reduced.  Vegetative growth was 53 to 91 percent
greater on unburned sited than on burned sites.  Species diversity was
unchanged.  Total grass cover was not substantially altered.  Sand
bluestem, sand dropseed, and sandhill muhly relative cover decreased;
prairie sandreed and needle-and-thread grass relative cover increased
[49].

A study to evaluate the effects of grazing on fire response was
conducted on choppy sands sites.  Both grazed and ungrazed sites burned
in May averaged 26 percent lower total cover in August than unburned
sites.  After 2 years, vegetative cover averaged 11 percent less on
burned sites than on unburned sites.  The decline in total cover as a
consequence of burning was greatest on north-facing slopes (where
prefire grass cover was greatest).  A suggested reason for this effect
was that greater grass cover on a site promotes a hotter, more intense,
and therefore more destructive fire [78].

The Arapaho Prairie has not been grazed since its purchase by the Nature
Conservancy in 1976.  Areas of this prairie were burned by wildfire
(lightning ignition) in October 1981.  Aboveground plant biomass was
measured the following growing season.  In early spring, prairie
sandreed exhibited a higher rate of growth on burned areas than on
unburned areas, but by mid-August, burned and unburned sites were
approximately equal in prairie sandreed aboveground biomass.
Needle-and-thread grass had greater biomass on burned sites than on
unburned sites in August, but the reverse was true in October,
indicating that growth slowed earlier on burned sites.  A similar
pattern was exhibited by blue grama [37].

No studies have been conducted on the long-term effects of fire on
Nebraska sandhills prairie vegetation [49].

Nebraska Sandhills Prairie Species In Other Communities:  In the loess
hills of Nebraska, a late spring prescribed fire was used to control
Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), Canada bluegrass (P. compressa), and
Japanese brome (Bromus japonicus).  Precipitation was lower than average
the first postfire growing season and above average the second year
following the fire.  Herbage yield of warm-season grasses (blue grama,
sideouts grama, and sand dropseed) was generally higher in June and
September on burned plots in both the first and second postfire years
[41].

In northern mixed prairie, the ratio of cool-season (needle-and-thread
grass, big bluestem, switchgrass) to warm-season (blue grama, sideouts
grama, little bluestem) species was unaffected by burning; however,
herbage production of cool-season species increased during the
warm-season growth period on spring-, summer-, and fall-burned plots.
Warm-season herbage increased with spring fire as expected.  The
increase in cool-season species is contradictory to the prevailing view
that spring burning is detrimental to cool-season grasses.  The author
suggested that there is a native cool-season guild of species that are
well adapted to fire, and that the warm-season species are less well
adapted to fire on dry northern sites [44].  In the mixed-grass prairie
of Wind Cave National Park, South Dakota, spring prescribed fires were
conducted for ponderosa pine control.  The fires were lit when
cool-season grasses were in the process of green-up and the fires were
relatively low-severity and slow-moving. Green needlegrass (Stipa
viridula), needle-and-thread grass, little bluestem, and western
wheatgrass decreased in ground cover the first growing season after the
fire, but showed rapid increases the 2 years following the fire.  Bare
ground cover increased 26 percent immediately after the fire but
decreased 29 percent to below prefire estimated levels by 2 years after
the fire [20].

Wright and others [54] charted information on the response of species by
prairie type and location.  Glenn-Lewin and others [23] determined the
flowering response of prairie species to burning.  In locations other
than Nebraska sandhills prairie, big bluestem, little bluestem, sideoats
grama, switchgrass, indiangrass, and prairie dropseed all increase
flower production after a fire [23].


FIRE EFFECTS ON RESOURCE MANAGEMENT : 
Annual spring fires in the Allwine Prairie Preserve (Douglas County,
Nebraska) appeared to cause minimal mortality to ground-nesting and
burrowing species.  The western harvest mouse, however, is quite
vulnerable to prairie fires since it constructs aboveground nests out of
prairie grasses and grass litter.  Considerable mortality occurred to
both adults and young [18].

Historically, prairie fires caused much mortality and injury to American
bison, deer, and wolves [36].  Animal use of burned prairie was also
affected; American bison, which used the same migration routes
repeatedly, would alter their migration pathway where burned areas were
depleted of forage.  As much as a month was required in some cases for
American bison to return to an area following a fire [36].


FIRE USE CONSIDERATIONS : 
Grassland fires can be intense and fast moving.  Most grassland fires
burn as headfires without completely consuming fuels [17,46].  Headfires
in tall grasses can generate big flames but do not usually produce
firebrands or spot fires due to the rapid consumption of fuels.  Despite
large and extensive fire fronts and a rapid spread rate, extremely high
temperatures at ground level are uncommon [46].  Damage to the basal
portions and rootstocks of plants is therefore also uncommon [17,46].
In dry conditions, backing fires generate more heat than headfires since
they are slower moving [22,46], and thus consume fuel more completely.
In dry conditions backing fires may cause more damage to roots and plant
bases than headfires [17,25,26].  The amount and rate of heat release in
grassland fires depends on weather conditions, topography (fire spreads
faster with steeper slopes), and fuel characteristics [17].

Grassland fires often develop broad fronts because of extensive and
unbroken terrain and continuous fuels.  Fire fronts become irregular
when topography and discontinuous fuel loads retard fire movement, and
when winds and developing fire storms speed up fire movement [46].  Fire
spread patterns in large fires may be very irregular, leaving patches of
unburned vegetation [37].  Burned areas cool off rapidly behind the
front allowing animals (and humans) to move into burned areas
immediately [46].  Specific guidelines on conducting prescribed fire in
grasslands are available [25,34] .

Significant differences in flammability during the growing season arise
due to vegetative moisture content and stage of development.  In one
study, the burn residue (inversely related to flammability, i.e. the
drier the vegetation the more complete combustion and less ash formed)
varied from a low of less than 1 percent of dry biomass in April to a
maximum of 16 percent in June.  Seasonal differences in flammability
appear to depend on both moisture content and stage of vegetative
development [8].

Summer prescribed fires can be successfully conducted in native bluestem
prairies, probably including Nebraska sandhills prairie, even without
forced ignition using petroleum-based fuels or artificial accumulation
of plant matter for fuel [8].


FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS : 
The ecological role of fire in the Nebraska sandhills prairie is
unclear.  Current range management practices consist of total fire
exclusion.  Range managers believe that fire exclusion is the best
policy for maintaining domestic cattle forage [24].  The increase in
Nebraska sandhills rangeland productivity in the first half of this
century was at least partly attributed to fire control efforts because
of reduced vegetation loss and blowout occurrence [13].  However, this
may not be the most appropriate regime for the health of the ecosystem.
The stabilization of dune soils, due in part to fire suppression, has
contributed to the endangered status of blowout penstemon (Penstemon
haydenii).  This species occurs exclusively in blowouts, and is now on
the Federal List of Endangered Species [24].  There is ample evidence
that most types of grasslands soon begin to deteriorate when closed to
both grazing and fire; however, not all grasslands are fire dependent
[1,2].  In Nebraska sandhills prairie fire may not be completely
beneficial.  One year after an October wildfire on the Arapaho Prairie
total phytomass was 23 percent less on burned sites than on unburned
sites.  Morrison and others [37] concluded that these grasslands are not
positively affected by fire.  Observations made 2 years after the fire,
however, indicated that there were no long-lasting deleterious effects
[37].

Few studies on fire frequency have been done for Nebraska sandhills
prairie [8,9].  Ponderosa pine is increasing in some areas of Nebraska
sandhills prairie due to cattle grazing and decreased fire frequency
[43].  Historically, fire played a beneficial role in the preservation
of tallgrass prairie, and fire protection/suppression has led to an
increase in woody vegetation, particularly in the eastern portions of
the tallgrass prairie zone.  Fire in tallgrass prairies suppresses the
encroachment of trees and shrubs, and reduces competition from
cool-season invaders (i.e., Kentucky bluegrass and smooth brome) [42].
In the absence of fire, mixed-grass prairie in the Black Hills, South
Dakota, has also been invaded by ponderosa pine in the last 100 years.
It is estimated that 50 percent of presettlement prairie has been
converted to ponderosa pine woodlands [22].  In the Black Hills,
prescribed fire can be used in bluestem grasslands to reduce pine
invasion without decreasing forage production if the fire is conducted
prior to May 1 [21].

Nebraska sandhills prairie contains many tallgrass prairie species.  The
response of these species to fire has been more extensively studied in
true tallgrass prairie types than in Nebraska sandhills prairie.  The
particular soil and precipitation properties of Nebraska sandhills
prairie may have a unique effect on these species, particularly during
drought.  Bailey [3] stated that wildfire during the growing season is
detrimental to arid (9.6 to 16 inches [240-400 mm] mean annual
precipitation) mixed prarie range, but on wetter (16 to 20 inches
[400-500 mm] mean annual precipitation) areas, the vegetation is better
able to withstand the detrimental effects of fire.  Several major
grasses that are harmed by fire in the arid areas of North Dakota were
found to increase in cover after fire in the wetter eastern part of the
state [30].

In tallgrass prairies, the accumulation of dead plant material reaches
growth inhibiting quantities in only 3 to 5 years.  This accumulation
retards the warming of soil and reduces available light at the bases of
grass plants [48].  Occasional fires (every 2 to 3 years) renovate
unmowed prairies and are distinctly beneficial if they occur in spring
before growth is renewed [48].  Vegetation is generally more palatable
and more nutritious on burned sites than on unburned sites; coarse
grasses such as little bluestem that have a tendency to accumulate
litter are particularly improved [42,52].  Gartner and White [22] stated
that prescribed fire could be used to stimulate production of desirable
herbaceous species, reduce mulch accumulation, and reduce competition
from unwanted species within the prairie-forest ecotone.

Fire is recognized as having benefits to tallgrass prairie during
periods of average to above average precipitation [15].  In tallgrass
prairie, productivity of big bluestem, measured as aboveground biomass,
generally increases after a fire [45].  Most experimental fires in
tallgrass prairies are conducted between late March and April.  In
prairies dominated by warm-season grasses, growth and production are
stimulated by spring burning [6].  Spring burning enhances the growth,
tillering, and flowering-stem density of big bluestem and other
warm-season grasses [15].  For big bluestem, the increase is greater
with late-spring fires (mid- to late April) than with early (mid-March)
fires [6].  Over a period of 56 years in tallgrass prairie, big bluestem
increased under an annual spring fire regime and little bluestem
decreased [45].  Summer (prescribed) fire effects are likely to differ
substantially from those during dormant periods [8].

In tallgrass prairies, timing of burning greatly affects individual
species response to fire.  Early spring burning favors little bluestem
and prairie dropseed; late spring burning favors big bluestem,
indiangrass, and switchgrass [5,42].  Burning too early may depress big
bluestem production rather than stimulating it [45].  Repeated burning
of big bluestem communities favors indiangrass [5].  Wildfires during
the growing season, especially in drought years, appear to cause some
plant mortality [22].  Other factors including target species,
geographic location and rainfall must be considered in predicting and
interpreting response to burning [45].


REHABILITATION OF SITES FOLLOWING WILDFIRE : 
Blowout formation is sometimes triggered by denudation due to fire.
Blowouts can be stabilized with mulch and/or establishment of
vegetation.  A test of the efficacy of various grass species in
stabilizing blowouts determined that prairie sandreed had the highest
stand density and greatest freqency of occurrence on seeded blowout
plots.  It was also rated the msot effective at holding sand in place;
the authors recommend planting prairie sandreed and/or intermediate
wheatgrass (Thinopyrum intermedium) under a layer of prairie hay mulch
for the most rapid and complete stabilization of blowouts [35].

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Related categories for Kuchler Type: Nebraska sandhills prairie