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Wildlife, Animals, and Plants
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Introductory
SPECIES: Calluna vulgaris | Heather
ABBREVIATION :
CALVUL
SYNONYMS :
NO-ENTRY
SCS PLANT CODE :
CAVU
COMMON NAMES :
heather
Scotch heather
TAXONOMY :
The currently accepted scientific name of heather is Calluna vulgaris
(L.) Hull. (Ericaceae) [7,11,40]. There are no recognized subspecies,
varieties, or forms.
LIFE FORM :
Shrub
FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS :
No special status
OTHER STATUS :
NO-ENTRY
COMPILED BY AND DATE :
Robin F. Matthews, September 1993
LAST REVISED BY AND DATE :
NO-ENTRY
AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION :
Matthews, Robin F. 1993. Calluna vulgaris. In: Remainder of Citation
DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
SPECIES: Calluna vulgaris | Heather
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION :
Heather is naturalized in North America from Newfoundland west to
Michigan and south through Nova Scotia and the New England states to the
mountains of West Virginia. It is widespread throughout Europe
[7,40,41].
Most of the information contained in this write-up is taken from
research conducted in western Europe.
ECOSYSTEMS :
FRES10 White - red - jack pine
FRES11 Spruce - fir
FRES15 Oak - hickory
FRES18 Maple - beech - birch
FRES19 Aspen - birch
STATES :
CT ME MD MA MI NH NJ NY PA RI
VT WV NB NF NS ON PQ
ADMINISTRATIVE UNITS :
NO-ENTRY
BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS :
NO-ENTRY
KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS :
NO-ENTRY
SAF COVER TYPES :
NO-ENTRY
SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES :
NO-ENTRY
HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES :
Some common plant associates of heather in Europe include Scotch pine
(Pinus sylvestris), Norway spruce (Picea abies), birch (Betula spp.),
heath (Erica spp.), dwarf bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus), mountain
cranberry (Vaccinium vitis-idaea), bearberry (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi),
crowberry (Empetrum nigrum), willow (Salix spp.), red raspberry (Rubus
idaeus), sheathed cottonsedge (Eriophorum vaginatum), bracken fern
(Pteridium aquilinum), sedges (Carex spp.), hairgrass (Deschampsia
flexuosa), moor-grass (Molinia spp.), reindeer lichens (Cladonia spp.),
Sphagnum spp., fire moss (Ceratodon purpureus), Polytrichum spp.,
mountain fern moss (Hylocomium splendens), and feathermoss (Pleurozium
schreberi) [1,15,43,45].
VALUE AND USE
SPECIES: Calluna vulgaris | Heather
WOOD PRODUCTS VALUE :
NO-ENTRY
IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE :
Heather leaves and shoots are the most important yearlong food of rock
ptarmigan and grouse in Scotland and Denmark [39]. Heather may comprise
80 to 100 percent of the diet of grouse, and also constitutes a large
portion of the diet of domestic sheep [10]. Red deer and mountain hare
also browse heather [35].
PALATABILITY :
NO-ENTRY
NUTRITIONAL VALUE :
New shoot tips of heather are higher in nitrogen, phosphorous, and
copper than older stems; they decline in nutritional value after the
first year [24,35].
COVER VALUE :
Heather is the primary cover of the European red grouse. Grouse use
tall, old heather for cover; young, accessible shoots for food; and
dense patches for breeding [35]. Heather probably also provides good
cover for other upland game birds, small nongame birds, and small
mammals.
VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES :
NO-ENTRY
OTHER USES AND VALUES :
NO-ENTRY
MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
Heather has lower shoot production, decreased dry shoot weight, and
reduced flowering in shaded conditions [15,20]. The quantity of lignin,
condensed tannin, and phenolic compounds produced is considerably
reduced under shaded conditions, making it more desirable to herbivores
[20].
In simulated grazing experiments, light to medium grazing increased the
number of shoot apices of heather, but heavy grazing eventually caused a
decline in cover. Summer grazing may be more detrimental than winter
grazing, and older plants may be more vulnerable to grazing than younger
ones [15].
Heather releases allelopathic substances that may inhibit invasion
and growth of some trees in heather-dominated heaths and moors
[14,48,49].
BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
SPECIES: Calluna vulgaris | Heather
GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS :
Heather is an evergreen ascending shrub, usually reaching 3.3 feet (1 m)
in height [7,11,41]. Growth form varies from low and sparse to dense
and bushy [22]. The opposite leaves are 0.08 to 0.16 inches (0.2-0.4
cm) long, and flowers are in axillary or terminal racemes [7,11,41].
The root system is lateral and mostly buried within the top 4 inches (10
cm) of soil [13,34]. On poorly drained sites, roots may extend to 8
inches (20 cm) below ground [34]. Young plants have a taproot that is
later obscured by increased growth and branching of lateral roots. A
surface mat is formed by adventitious roots and fine branches of the
main root system [13].
RAUNKIAER LIFE FORM :
Phanerophyte
Chamaephyte
REGENERATION PROCESSES :
Heather reproduces from both seed and vegetative growth from stem bases
[6,10,44].
Heather seeds are small and are dispersed by wind or animals [6,25,45].
Seeds rarely germinate without exposure to light [6,25]. They show poor
germination on moss or lichen mats, possibly due to light deprivation
from the moss or lichen cover. However, a moss carpet has a positive
effect on seedling performance. Seedlings established on moss grow
faster and reproduce earlier than seedlings growing on bare ground.
Heather seed germination is better on mineral than organic soil and on
consolidated than loose substrates. Seeds do not germinate under
waterlogged conditions [6]. Germination increases when seeds are
heat-treated at temperatures of 104 to 176 degrees Fahrenheit (40-80 deg
C) for 1 minute. Exposure to temperatures above 248 degrees Fahrenheit
(120 deg C) for more than 30 seconds decreases germination rates, and
temperatures exceeding 392 degrees Fahrenheit (200 deg C) kill heather
seeds [21]. Heather establishes large soil seedbanks [8]. Seeds are
usually evenly distributed in the top 2 inches (5 cm) of soil [27].
They may remain viable for over 100 years [25].
Sprouting from the stem bases most often occurs in stands between 6 and
10 years of age and decreases in stands over 15 years old [8]. Old
degenerate stands of heather may reproduce by layering [26].
On dry heaths or moors, heather generally has a life span of about 30 to
40 years and communities are usually even-aged. In these habitats, the
life cycle occurs in four distinct phases. In the pioneer stage (0-6
years), heather establishes and grows vertically from the apex. During
the building stage (6-14 years), the plant grows laterally and forms a
dense, intertwining canopy with little light penetration. In the mature
stage (14-25 years), lateral growth slows and the plant thins out in the
center. In the degenerate stage (25 or more years), central branches
collapse and die, leaving a gap in the middle of the plant. The pioneer
stage is characterized by low overall biomass and high productivity; the
building stage by high biomass and high productivity; and the mature and
degenerate stages by high biomass and declining productivity [10].
In wet bog communities, heather does not undergo a phasic life cycle.
An uneven-age structure of aboveground stems develops due to the
constant burial of stems by sphagnum mosses (Sphagnum spp.) [16].
Sphagnum grows over the decumbent heather stems, leaving only young
shoots above ground. The older parts of the stem are increasingly
filled with heartwood and eventually become nonfunctional. The
uneven-aged "stem population" is constantly rejuvenated so that the mean
age of aboveground shoots is about 12 years and the maximum age rarely
exceeds 22 years [17]. A degenerate stage does not occur [16].
SITE CHARACTERISTICS :
Heather is found on nutrient-poor, acidic soils in open areas [20]. It
occurs in dry fields [41], wet bogs [16,24,43], dry heathlands or moors
[10,18,35], clearings in pine (Pinus spp.)-birch forests [10,43], oak
(Quercus spp.) woodlands [10], and above treeline [10,12].
SUCCESSIONAL STATUS :
Facultative Seral Species
Heather is a slow-growing, early successional shrub [20]. It is present
after logging in Scotch pine and Norway spruce stands in Sweden [2] and
Finland [37]. Heather is highly intolerant of shade [15,20].
In the absence of fire, heather-dominated heaths or moors are replaced
by birch and Scotch pine woodland [15,20], and in some areas by bracken
fern [32]. In wet bogs, heather maintains a "steady state" without
disturbance [16,17].
SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT :
In North America heather flowers from July to November [7].
FIRE ECOLOGY
SPECIES: Calluna vulgaris | Heather
FIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS :
Heather is a fire-prone species; dense stands of heather on dry heaths
require repeated fire for maintenance [5]. Removal of the forest canopy
by fire increases heather abundance [23]. Following top-kill, heather
sprouts from surviving stem bases and reproduces from seedbanks
[10,25,44]. Sprouts and newly established seedlings flower and produce
seed rapidly, possibly within the first postfire year. This greatly
increases the abundance of heather on recently burned sites [27].
POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY :
Small shrub, adventitious-bud root crown
Ground residual colonizer (on-site, initial community)
Secondary colonizer - off-site seed
Secondary colonizer - off-site seed
FIRE EFFECTS
SPECIES: Calluna vulgaris | Heather
IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT :
Exposure to temperatures greater than 932 degrees Fahrenheit (500 deg C)
for more than 1 minute is lethal to heather whatever its age [8].
Severe fires may kill seeds [30]. Light to moderately severe fires may
top-kill heather but usually do not damage stem bases or destroy seeds [25].
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT :
NO-ENTRY
PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE :
The response of heather to fire is highly variable and is dependent on
(1) the habitat that is burned (wet bog or dry heath), (2) the phase the
heather is in (pioneer, building, mature, degenerate), and (3) the
temperature and duration of the fire. The severity of grazing on young
heather shoots after fire may also affect their response [36].
Most fires that occur in pioneer or building phase stands in dry heaths
are light to moderately severe. Regeneration after these fires is by
sprouting from stem bases protected from the heat by litter and organic
soil horizons, and from germination of seeds stored in seedbanks [25].
Severe fires which occur due to accumulation of fuel in old or very dry
stands may kill stem bases. In such cases, regeneration is from seeds
alone, and is much slower than vegetative growth [10,25,28]. If seeds
are killed by severe fire, establishment depends on seed dispersal from
adjacent unburned areas [30]. Severely burned areas may remain bare for
70 years or more [30], or a moss or lichen mat may form which will
inhibit germination of heather seeds [3,30].
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE :
NO-ENTRY
FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
Most heaths dominated by heather are a product of interference by humans
and were historically preceded by forest [30]. In western Europe,
burning at regular intervals has been the principle land management
practice for heaths for over 200 years and has resulted in the
development of pure heather stands over vast tracts of land [17,29,31].
Heaths have been maintained for sheep and red grouse, both of which are
economically important. When managing red grouse habitat, heather is
burned to provide a mosaic of stands with diverse ages, heights, and
densities [31,35]. Heaths are not burned after March due to breeding
and nesting [47].
In dry heaths of western Europe, fire is used to prevent tree invasion
[36], maintain a balance between young and old heather shoots, and
maintain heather in the building phase at the expense of other species
[17]. Dominance of heather on these heaths is important because it is
often the most productive and nutritious species found on dry, infertile
heath soils [10]. Heather production greatly exceeds heather
consumption by herbivores, resulting in a large accumulation of wood and
litter. Decomposition is slow in the cool, wet climate and acid soils
of dry heaths, so a deep layer of plant litter and humus forms. Fire
removes the dead wood and litter. If burning takes place when the
vegetation is too dry or in old stands with large accumulations of dead
woody material, stem bases may be killed. Temperatures above 1,112
degress Fahrenheit (600 deg C) increase the loss of nutrients,
especially nitrogen and phosphorous, which are often already deficient
in the nutrient-poor soils that heather grows in [17].
A fire interval of approximately 15 years has been suggested for the
management of heather in heathlands at low to middle altitudes. This
interval maintains heather in its competitive building phase, allowing
it to outcompete other species [10,35]. If intervals are longer than 15
years, the heather may be too old to sprout from stem bases or fires may
be too severe. This may lead to an extended period where the
competitive vigor of heather is low, allowing the invasion of bracken
fern or other undesirable species [10]. Since height is an indicator of
stand phase, it can also be used as a factor in determining appropriate
fire intervals. It has been suggested that heather be burned before it
reaches 12 inches (30 cm) [19]; heather more than 16 inches (40 cm) tall
often burns very severely and is thus seldom targeted for prescribed
fire [30]. A well-managed fire removes most of the aerial vegetation
while still permitting vigorous vegetative regeneration [10,30].
Temperatures of about 752 degrees Fahrenheit (400 deg C) in the canopy
and less than 392 degrees Fahrenheit (200 deg C) at the soil surface are
optimal [10]. Moderate heat may stimulate germination of seeds [31].
Fire management of heather in wet bogs produces inconsistent results
[10,16]. Frequent burning of wet bogs in Ireland has in some cases led
to the replacement of heather by deciduous species. This in turn has
resulted in an increased amount of litter produced yearly and a lower
stocking capacity for sheep in winter. To maintain heather, areas can
be burned in long rotations [24]. Longer intervals between fires (about
20 years) are also suggested for the management of wet bogs in Great
Britain. Frequent burning of heather there temporarily increases the
availability of young shoots, but the resulting community is dominated
by sheathed cottonsedge or moor-grass rather than heather. Burning may
not be required at all since heather remains in a "steady state" in wet
bog habitats [16].
FIRE CASE STUDIES
SPECIES: Calluna vulgaris | Heather
CASE NAME :
Studies on Fire in Scottish Heathland Communities
REFERENCES :
Hobbs, R. J.; Gimingham, C. H. 1984 [18,19]
SEASON/SEVERITY CLASSIFICATION :
Spring/moderately-severe to severe fires
STUDY LOCATION :
The study sites were located on the Hill Farming Research Organization's
farm at Glensaugh, Kincardineshire, Scotland.
PREFIRE VEGETATIVE COMMUNITY :
Prior to burning, the vegetation consisted of stands of species-poor
heath classified as Callunetum and Type A Callunetum by various authors.
Four stands were sampled and described in terms of growth phase of the
heather (there were no degenerate stands at the site):
Stand 1--pioneer (average age 5 years old, high productivity, low biomass)
Stand 2--building (average age 12 years old, high productivity)
Stand 3--mature (average age 14 years old, high biomass, production declining)
Stand 4--mature (average age 14 years old, high biomass, production declining)
Preburn frequencies (percent) of heather, hairgrass, dwarf bilberry,
deer fern (Blechnum spicant), rush (Juncus squarrosus), potentilla
(Potentilla erecta), and some mosses at the site were:
Stand 1 Stand 2 Stand 3
________________________________________________________________
heather 100 100 100
hairgrass 50.0 34.4 25.8
dwarf bilberry 94.5 63.3 57.0
deer fern -- 1.6 --
rush -- 2.3 --
potentilla 1.6 4.7 --
Dicranum scoparium 8.6 7.0 --
Hypnum jutlandicum 20.3 35.1 32.0
Polytrichum longisetum 0.8 4.7 0.8
Preburn vegetation was not reported for Stand 4.
This fire study was also conducted at another site classified as a
species-rich heath of the Arctostaphyleto-Callunetum type. Heather was
codominant at that site and some of the stands were in the degenerate
phase.
TARGET SPECIES PHENOLOGICAL STATE :
SITE DESCRIPTION :
Site characteristics for the stands follow:
Stand 1 Stand 2 Stand 3 Stand 4
_______________________________________________________________________
Slope (deg) 10 10 7 10
Aspect NW NW NW SW
Altitude (m) 400 400 400 420
The substrate consisted of podzolized soils on quartz schist till. Mean
temperatures in the area are 30 degrees Fahrenheit (-0.8 deg C) in
January and 56 degrees Fahrenheit (13.4 deg C) in July. Annual rainfall
ranges from 35 to 48 inches (870-1,190 mm).
FIRE DESCRIPTION :
The four stands at the site varied considerably in size but all were at
least 33 by 66 feet (10 X 20 m), and all were burned on April 26, 1978.
The stands were situated close to one another and some were burned by
the same fire. Prefire conditions were as follows (soil and vegetation
moistures expressed as percent dry weight):
Stand 1 Stand 2 Stand 3 Stand 4
___________________________________________________________________________
Soil moisture 258 259 305 275
Vegetation moisture 101 144 129 109
Mean windspeed (m/sec) 6 6 8 8.5
Fuel consumed (g/sq m) 868 1116 2048 1688
Rate of spread (m/min) 0.25 1.33 0.33 1.0
Duration (min) 5 4 5 5
Width of front (m) 5 12 12 25
Maximum temperature (deg C)
Canopy 340 620 440 660
Soil surface 180 590 560 840
Time above 400 deg C (sec) 0 30 5 30
Time above 600 deg C (sec) 0 3 0 24
Intensity (kW/m) 56 593 227 690
Available heat energy (MJ/sq m) 13.4 26.8 41.4 41.4
FIRE EFFECTS ON TARGET SPECIES :
Temperatures and intensities increased with stand age until the mature
phase. These values declined in degenerate stands at the species-rich
Arcostaphyleto-Callunetum heath site. The open, discontinuous stands
(pioneer and degenerate phases) burned more slowly than the more
homogenous stands (building and mature phases). The collapse of the
canopy in degenerate stands altered the fuel configuration so that fire
temperatures remained relatively low.
Postfire vegetative growth of heather was very rapid in the pioneer
phase and led to recovery of dominance by heather. It reached a
frequency of almost 100 percent by the end of the first growing season.
Less postfire vegetative growth occurred in the building phase, which
resulted in a mixed heather-dwarf bilberry community at postfire year 3.
Virtually no vegetative growth occurred after fire in the mature-phase
stands.
Heather seedlings were found in all stands from the second growing
season onwards but remained infrequent except in the building stand. In
the mature stands, regeneration was almost entirely from seed. Numerous
seedlings established and subsequently died in stand four (mature
phase), but their numbers increased during the third postfire growing
season. Early seedling mortality allowed dwarf bilberry and hairgrass
to spread rapidly, and created a dwarf bilberry-dominated community by
postfire year 3.
The densities (number/sq m) of aboveground shoots and seedlings of
heather in the year of the fire and in 2 successive years follow:
Stand 1 Stand 2 Stand 3 Stand 4
___________________________________________________________________
Vegetative shoots
1978 157.0 60.5 3.0 1.7
1979 106.2 51.0 2.0 2.0
1980 70.7 43.0 2.0 2.0
Seedlings
1978 0 0 0 0
1979 2.5 4.2 52.0 11.5
1980 0.7 15.7 4.5 17.0
FIRE MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS :
Vegetation height may be a useful integrating factor for determining the
state of a stand and its fuel availability. It has been suggested that
heather be burned before it reaches 12 inches (30 cm).
Burning old stands of heather may lead to a rapid spread of rhizomatous
species (such as dwarf bilberry) when these species were present before
the fire, even in small quantities. In old heather stands where
rhizomatous species are not present, colonization by heather seedlings
may take a very long time and bare ground may remain for many years. In
both cases, the lack of rapid heather regeneration is of concern since
it is often the major forage species present on these species-poor
heaths. In addition, soil erosion continues until vegetative cover is
established, and the risk of erosion is much greater when heather growth
is delayed. Fire, therefore, may be an unsuitable form of management in
old stands of heather.
REFERENCES
SPECIES: Calluna vulgaris | Heather
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Index
Related categories for Species: Calluna vulgaris
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