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Introductory

SPECIES: Elaeagnus angustifolia | Russian-Olive
ABBREVIATION : ELAANG SYNONYMS : NO-ENTRY SCS PLANT CODE : ELAN COMMON NAMES : Russian-olive oleaster narrow-leafed oleaster TAXONOMY : The currently accepted scientific name for Russian-olive is Elaeagnus angustifolia L. [12,20,28,30]. Recognized varieties are as follows [20,28,30]: E. angustifolia var. angustifolia E. angustifolia var. orientalis Dippl E. angustifolia var. spinosa Schneid. LIFE FORM : Tree, Shrub FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS : No special status OTHER STATUS : NO-ENTRY COMPILED BY AND DATE : Julie L. Tesky, June 1992. LAST REVISED BY AND DATE : NO-ENTRY AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION : Tesky, Julie L. 1992. Elaeagnus angustifolia. In: Remainder of Citation

DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE

SPECIES: Elaeagnus angustifolia | Russian-Olive
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION : Russian-olive is a native of southern Europe and western Asia [27,30]. It was introduced into the United States in the early 1900's. By the mid-1900's it had escaped cultivation and is now extensively naturalized in 17 western states bordered on the east by the Dakotas, Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas [7,24,27,30], and extending west to the Pacific Coast. It also occurs in southern Canada from Ontario to British Columbia [2,7,20]. It grows in some eastern states but is not naturalized [2,7,27]. ECOSYSTEMS : FRES15 Oak - hickory FRES17 Elm - ash - cottonwood FRES21 Ponderosa pine FRES28 Western hardwoods FRES29 Sagebrush FRES30 Desert shrub FRES31 Shinnery FRES32 Texas savanna FRES33 Southwestern shrubsteppe FRES34 Chaparral - mountain shrub FRES35 Pinyon - juniper FRES38 Plains grasslands FRES40 Desert grasslands STATES : AL AZ AR CA CO ID IL IN IA KS KY LA MN MT NE NV NM ND NY OH OK OR PA SD TN TX UT WA WI WY AB BC MB ON SK MEXICO ADMINISTRATIVE UNITS : ARCH BICA CACH CANY CARE CATO COLM FIIS GATE GRCA HOSP JODA PIPE SCBL THRO TICA ZION BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS : 1 Northern Pacific Border 2 Cascade Mountains 3 Southern Pacific Border 4 Sierra Mountains 5 Columbia Plateau 6 Upper Basin and Range 7 Lower Basin and Range 8 Northern Rocky Mountains 9 Middle Rocky Mountains 10 Wyoming Basin 11 Southern Rocky Mountains 12 Colorado Plateau 13 Rocky Mountain Piedmont 14 Great Plains 15 Black Hills Uplift 16 Upper Missouri Basin and Broken Lands KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS : K010 Ponderosa shrub forest K011 Western ponderosa forest K013 Cedar - hemlock - pine forest K016 Eastern ponderosa forest K017 Black Hills pine forest K019 Arizona pine forest K022 Great Basin pine forest K023 Juniper - pinyon woodland K027 Mesquite bosque K040 Saltbush - greasewood K055 Sagebrush steppe K056 Wheatgrass - needlegrass shrubsteppe K057 Galleta - three-awn shrubsteppe K059 Trans-Pecos shrub savanna K063 Foothills prairie K064 Grama - needlegrass - wheatgrass K066 Wheatgrass - needlegrass K067 Wheatgrass - bluestem - needlegrass K071 Shinnery K081 Oak savanna K098 Northern floodplain forest K101 Elm - ash forest SAF COVER TYPES : 63 Cottonwood 95 Black willow 235 Cottonwood - willow 236 Bur oak 237 Interior ponderosa pine 240 Arizona cypress 245 Pacific ponderosa pine SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES : NO-ENTRY HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES : Publications listing Russian-olive as a dominant or codominant in classification schemes are listed below: Riparian dominance types of Montana [13] Classification and management of riparian and wetland sites in central and eastern Montana [14] Plant associates: Plant species associated with Russian-olive are typically those also associated with mesic meadows and floodplain forests. Perennial grasses tend to be prominent in areas infested with Russian olive. Common plant associates are bearded wheatgrass (Elymus trachycaulus ssp. subsecundus), redtop (Agrostis gigantea), common ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia), tansyleaf aster (Machaeranthera tanacetifolia), eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides var. deltoides), green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), boxelder (Acer negundo), peachleaf willow (Salix amygdaloides), and narrowleaf cottonwood (Populus angustifolia) [5,13,14,15].

VALUE AND USE

SPECIES: Elaeagnus angustifolia | Russian-Olive
WOOD PRODUCTS VALUE : Russian-olive wood is not commercially important [19]. IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE : More than 50 species of birds and mammals eat the fruit of Russian-olive. Of these, 12 are game birds [2]. The foliage is browsed by deer and livestock [19]. Beavers use Russian-olive branches for dam-building material [25]. In general, Russian-olive-dominated communities provide inferior wildlife habitat to that of native riparian vegetation. In Idaho, willow habitats had a significantly higher density of breeding birds than Russian-olive habitats [31]. Russian-olive can displace some native woody species. It is established throughout the Platte River drainage of Nebraska and is projected to displace native plains cottonwood (Populus deltoides var. occidentalis) as a climax species. This displacement will dramatically influence the native birds. The plant community will no longer provide essential habitat components for selected guilds such as cavity-nesting birds [25,31]. Ducks may avoid wetlands rimmed by dense stands of Russian-olive [25]. PALATABILITY : Russian-olive's palatability to livestock and wildlife species in several western states has been rated as follows [6]: CO MT ND UT WY Cattle Poor Fair Fair Poor Poor Sheep Fair Fair Good Fair Fair Horses Poor Poor Poor Poor Poor Pronghorn ---- Fair ---- Fair Poor Elk ---- ---- ---- Good Fair Mule deer ---- Poor Poor Good Good White-tailed deer Good Fair ---- ---- Poor Small mammals Good ---- ---- Good Good Small nongame birds Good Good Fair Good Good Upland game birds ---- Good Good Good Good Waterfowl ---- ---- ---- Fair Good NUTRITIONAL VALUE : Russian-olive has been rated fair in protein and energy value [6]. Russian-olive fruit from the Northern Great Plains contained 5.0 kcal/gram of gross energy and 6.6 percent crude protein. Its fruit provided a good source of food for sharp-tailed grouse in winter [8]. COVER VALUE : Russian-olive's spreading thorny branches and thicket-forming growth make excellent thermal and hiding cover for some wildlife species [2,6]. Mourning doves, mocking birds, greater roadrunners and several other species of birds use Russian-olive for nesting [2]. The degree to which Russian-olive provides environmental protection during one or more seasons for wildlife species has been rated as follows [6]: CO MT ND UT WY Pronghorn ---- ---- Fair Fair Poor Elk ---- ---- ---- Good Good Mule deer ---- Fair Good Good Good White-tailed deer Good Good ---- ---- Good Small mammals Good Fair ---- Good Good Small nongame birds Good Good Good Good Good Upland game birds Good Good Good Good Good Waterfowl ---- ---- ---- Good Fair VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES : Due to its dense growth form, hardiness, and adaptibility to a wide range of soil and moisture conditions, Russian-olive has been widely planted in shelterbelts throughout the prairie states [4,11,23]. It has also been used for wildlife habitat plantings, erosion control and highway beautification [4,23]. Russian-olive is a nitrogen-fixing species [22,33]. Because of its ability to increase available nitrogen in the soil, Russian-olive is sometimes interplanted with other tree crops to increase their growth and yield [33]. Russian-olive has a tendency to spread to areas where it is not desired; therefore, careful monitoring of sites planted with this species is important. Because of the potential problems Russian-olive can cause, managers may want to consider planting native vegetation instead. OTHER USES AND VALUES : Russian-olive is often planted as an ornamental because of its silvery leaves and decorative fruit. It also has some value as a honey plant [30]. MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS : Russian-olive can interfere with agricultural practices and can displace native riparian vegetation [24]. It rapidly colonizes lowland fields, often chokes irrigation ditches, and damages tires and equipment [25]. The impact of Russian-olive may be severe in some locations. In South Dakota, many marshlands have been displaced by lowland Russian-olive woodlands [25]. Russian-olive has been declared a noxious weed in Utah, and the state of Washington is considering doing the same. The city of Fort Collins, Colorado is actively removing the trees [31]. Control: Once established Russian-olive is difficult to control and nearly impossible to eradicate. Efforts to control unwanted concentrations of Russian-olive have included mowing seedlings, cutting, burning, spraying, girdling, and bulldozing [24]. Most efforts have realized limited success. Apparently the most effective combination of control efforts has been cutting trees, followed by either spraying or burning the stumps [25]. In Nebraska, Russian-olive trees were controlled with aerial applications of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T. Repeated application for 1 or 2 years was needed for best control of large trees [3].

BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS

SPECIES: Elaeagnus angustifolia | Russian-Olive
GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS : Russian-olive is an introduced, deciduous, shrub or small tree usually 12 to 45 feet (4-14 m) tall [2,7,12,28,30]. It can grow up to 6 feet (1.8 m) per year [31]. It forms a dense, rounded crown [28]. Near the ground its branches spread from 10 to 20 feet (3-6 m). Unpruned trees have five or six main stems starting near the ground [2]. The twigs are flexible, coated with a gray, scaly pubescence and often have a short thorn at the end [12,28]. The leaves are 1.7 to 3.5 inches (4.5-9 cm) long and are covered with scalelike stellate pubescence [12,28,30]. The bark is thin with shallow fissures, and exfoliates into long strips [28]. It has a deep taproot and well-developed lateral root system [2]. RAUNKIAER LIFE FORM : Phanerophyte REGENERATION PROCESSES : Sexual Reproduction: The average seed-bearing age of this species is 3 to 5 years [17]. The seeds are ingested with the fruit by birds and small mammals and dispersed in their droppings. The outer layer of the seed is impermeable to digestive juices. The seeds can remain viable for up to 3 years and are capable of germinating over a broad range of soil types [17]. Germination is enhanced by stratification in moist sand for 90 days at 41 degrees Fahrenheit (5 deg C) [30]. Spring moisture and slightly alkaline soil tend to favor seedling growth [23]. Vegetative reproduction: Russian olive-sprouts from the root crown and sends up root suckers [3,32]. SITE CHARACTERISTICS : Russian-olive naturalization is rapidly increasing, especially in riparian zones [24]. It is commonly found growing along floodplains, riverbanks, stream courses, marshes, and irrigation ditches in the West. It is well established throughout the Platte River Drainage of Colorado and Nebraska [24,25]. Salt-tolerance: Russian-olive is tolerant of considerable amounts of salinity or alkalinity [24,30]. However, it prefers sites with low to moderate concentrations (100-3,500 p/m) of soluble salts. The lower pH limit of Russian-olive is 6 [24]. Soil and moisture: Russian-olive thrives under a wide range of soil textures from sand to heavy clay, and can withstand flooding and silting. It grows best in deep sandy or loamy soils with only slight salt and alkali content. There are dense, healthy stands in riverbottoms where the water table is seldom more than 2 feet (0.6 m) below the surface. In contrast, it survives considerable drought [2]. Climate and elevation: Russian-olive can withstand temperatures ranging from -50 degrees Fahrenheit (-45 deg C) to 115 degrees Fahrenheit (46 deg C). It occurs from sea level to at least 8,000 feet (2,438 m) [2]. Elevational range for several western states is as follows [6]: Utah: 4,500 to 4,600 feet (1,372-1,402 m) Colorado: 4,500 to 7,000 feet (1,372-2,134 m) Wyoming: 3,900 to 6,200 feet (1,189-1,890 m) Shade tolerance: Russian-olive is somewhat shade tolerant and can withstand competition from other shrubs and trees [2,16]. SUCCESSIONAL STATUS : Russian-olive occurs as a initial colonizer of disturbed floodplains and streambanks. It is relatively shade tolerant and once established can persist throughout seral stages and become the climax dominant [2,16,25]. This species has displaced cottonwood in many major drainages [25]. Russian-olive community types in central and eastern Montana seem to represent a seral stage of the green ash/common chokecherry (Prunus virginiana) habitat types or the boxelder/common chokecherry [14]. SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT : Russian-olive generally flowers from May through June [24,28,30]. The fruits mature from August to October and remain on the tree throughout the winter or until the crop is consumed [2,23].

FIRE ECOLOGY

SPECIES: Elaeagnus angustifolia | Russian-Olive
FIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS : Russian-olive sprouts from the root crown after disturbance [3,32]. Its off-site seeds are an important source in colonizing burned areas. POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY : Tree with adventitious-bud root crown/soboliferous species root sucker Initial-offsite colonizer (off-site, initial community)

FIRE EFFECTS

SPECIES: Elaeagnus angustifolia | Russian-Olive
IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT : Information on the effects of fire on Russian-olive is lacking. Fire may top-kill Russian-olive. DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT : NO-ENTRY PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE : Russian-olive sprouts from the root crown following fire [3,32]. It also colonizes burned areas through off-site seed sources. DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE : NO-ENTRY FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS : Fire in combination with herbicide spraying of stumps can prevent Russian-olive from sprouting from the root crown [25].

REFERENCES

SPECIES: Elaeagnus angustifolia | Russian-Olive
REFERENCES : 1. Bernard, Stephen R.; Brown, Kenneth F. 1977. Distribution of mammals, reptiles, and amphibians by BLM physiographic regions and A.W. Kuchler's associations for the eleven western states. Tech. Note 301. Denver, CO: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. 169 p. [434] 2. Borell, A. E. 1971. Russian-olive for wildlife and other conservation uses. Leaflet 292. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture. 8 p. [6997] 3. Bovey, R. W. 1965. Control of Russian olive by aerial application of herbicides. Journal of Range Management. 18(4): 194-195. [18277] 4. Brothers, Timothy S. 1988. Indiana surface-mine forests: historical development and composition of a human-created vegetation complex. Southeastern Geographer. 28(1): 19-33. [8787] 5. Carman, John G.; Brotherson, Jack D. 1982. Comparison of sites infested and not infested with saltcedar (Tamarix pentandra) and Russian olive (Elaeagnus angustifolia). Weed Science. 30: 360-364. [6204] 6. Dittberner, Phillip L.; Olson, Michael R. 1983. The plant information network (PIN) data base: Colorado, Montana, North Dakota, Utah, and Wyoming. FWS/OBS-83/86. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. 786 p. [806] 7. Duncan, Wilbur H.; Duncan, Marion B. 1988. Trees of the southeastern United States. Athens, GA: The University of Georgia Press. 322 p. [12764] 8. Evans, Keith E.; Dietz, Donald R. 1974. Nutritional energetics of sharp-tailed grouse during winter. Journal of Wildlife Management. 38(4): 622-629. [14152] 9. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Washington, DC: Society of American Foresters. 148 p. [905] 10. Garrison, George A.; Bjugstad, Ardell J.; Duncan, Don A.; [and others]. 1977. Vegetation and environmental features of forest and range ecosystems. Agric. Handb. 475. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 68 p. [998] 11. George, Ernest J. 1953. Thirty-one-year results in growing shelterbelts on the Northern Great Plains. Circular No. 924. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture. 57 p. [4567] 12. Great Plains Flora Association. 1986. Flora of the Great Plains. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas. 1392 p. [1603] 13. Hansen, Paul L.; Chadde, Steve W.; Pfister, Robert D. 1988. Riparian dominance types of Montana. Misc. Publ. No. 49. Missoula, MT: University of Montana, School of Forestry, Montana Forest and Conservation Experiment Station. 411 p. [5660] 14. Hansen, Paul; Boggs, Keith; Pfister, Robert; Joy, John. 1990. Classification and management of riparian and wetland sites in central and eastern Montana. Missoula, MT: University of Montana, School of Forestry, Montana Forest and Conservation Experiment Station, Montana Riparian Association. 279 p. [12477] 15. Hansen, Paul; Pfister, Robert; Boggs, Keith; [and others]. 1989. Classification and management of riparian sites in central and eastern Montana. Missoula, MT: University of Montana, School of Forestry, Montana Riparian Association. 368 p. Draft Version 1. [8934] 16. Howe, W. H.; Knopf, F. L. 1991. On the imminent decline of Rio Grande cottonwoods in central New Mexico. Southwestern Naturalist. 36(2): 218-224. [18278] 17. Knopf, F. L.; Olson, T. E. 1984. Naturalization of Russian olive: implications to Rocky Mountain wildlife. Wildlife Society Bulletin. 12(3): 289-298. [18279] 18. Kuchler, A. W. 1964. Manual to accompany the map of potential vegetation of the conterminous United States. Special Publication No. 36. New York: American Geographical Society. 77 p. [1384] 19. Lamb, S. H. 1971. Woody plants of New Mexico and their value to wildlife. Bull. 14. Albuquerque, NM: New Mexico Department of Game and Fish. 80 p. [9818] 20. Little, Elbert L., Jr. 1979. Checklist of United States trees (native and naturalized). Agric. Handb. 541. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 375 p. [2952] 21. Lyon, L. Jack; Stickney, Peter F. 1976. Early vegetal succession following large northern Rocky Mountain wildfires. In: Proceedings, Tall Timbers fire ecology conference and Intermountain Fire Research Council fire and land management symposium; 1974 October 8-10; Missoula, MT. No. 14. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research Station: 355-373. [1496] 22. McNiel, Robert E.; Carpenter, Philip L. 1974. Nitrogen fixation by woody plant species as measured by the acetylene reduction assay. Hortscience. 9(4): 381-382. [13491] 23. Olson, David F., Jr. 1974. Elaeagnus L. elaeagnus. In: Schopmeyer, C. S., technical coordinator. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handb. 450. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 376-379. [7603] 24. Olson, Thomas E.; Knopf, Fritz L. 1986. Naturalization of Russian-olive in the western United States. Western Journal of Applied Forestry. 1(3): 65-69. [6761] 25. Olson, T. E.; Knopf, F. L. 1986. Agency subsidization of a rapidly spreading exotic. Wildlife Society Bulletin. 14(4): 492-493. [18280] 26. Raunkiaer, C. 1934. The life forms of plants and statistical plant geography. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 632 p. [2843] 27. Simpson, Benny J. 1988. A field guide to Texas trees. Austin, TX: Texas Monthly Press. 372 p. [11708] 28. Stephens, H. A. 1973. Woody plants of the North Central Plains. Lawrence, KS: The University Press of Kansas. 530 p. [3804] 29. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service. 1982. National list of scientific plant names. Vol. 1. List of plant names. SCS-TP-159. Washington, DC. 416 p. [11573] 30. Vines, Robert A. 1960. Trees, shrubs, and woody vines of the Southwest. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. 1104 p. [7707] 31. Williams, Nina. 1991. Why I killed trees on Earth Day. Boulder, CO: Boulder County Parks and Open Space Department. [18281] 32. Williams, Robert D.; Hanks, Sidney H. 1976. Hardwood nurseryman's guide. Agric. Handb. 473. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 78 p. [4182] 33. Zitzer, Stephen F.; Dawson, Jeffrey O.; Gertner, George Z. 1989. Seasonal changes in nitrogen fixation activity of European black alder and Russian olive. In: Rink, George; Budelsky, Carl A., eds. Proceedings, 7th central hardwood conference; 1989 March 5-8; Carbondale, IL. Gen. Tech. Rep. NC-132. St. Paul, MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Forest Experiment Station: 134-140. [9378]

Index

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