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You are here >1Up Info > Wildlife, Animals, and Plants > Plant Species > Shrub > Species: Rubus spectabilis | Salmonberry
 

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BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS

SPECIES: Rubus spectabilis | Salmonberry
GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS : Salmonberry is a branching, glandless, large to small, deciduous shrub which grows 7 to 13 feet (2-4 m) in height [48,66]. This rhizomatous clonal species frequently forms large, dense thickets [29,61,66]. Stems of most species within the genus Rubus are biennial. Young twigs are light brown and glabrous to pilose [48,66]. As twigs age, bark becomes light brown to yellowish, hairless, and shreddy [48,66]. Leaves are three foliate to simple [48]. The perfect flowers of salmonberry occur singly or in groups of two to four on slender lateral stalks [48,66]. The showy, mildly sweet-smelling flowers are pink to reddish purple [48,66]. The salmon-colored or yellowish fruit, commonly referred to as a "berry", is made up of many small glabrous drupelets [34,58,66]. Fruit is round to ovoid or conic and 0.6 to 0.8 inch (1.5-2 cm) in length [48]. RAUNKIAER LIFE FORM : Phanerophyte REGENERATION PROCESSES : Salmonberry can reproduce sexually or vegetatively. Reproductive versatility is common in the Rubus genus; sexual reproduction, parthenogenesis (development of the egg without fertilization), pseudogamy (a form of apomixis in which pollination is required), and parthenocarpy (production of fruit without fertilization) occur widely [12]. The following types of reproduction have been documented within the genus: (1) sexual reproduction, (2) nonreduction at meiosis on the female, male, or both sides, (3) apomixis with segregation, (4) apomixis without segregation, and (5) haploid parthenogenesis [12]. The various modes of asexual reproduction contribute to the vigorous, aggressive spread of species within the Rubus genus. Vegetative regeneration: The mostly biennial stems typically develop from perennial root stocks or aboveground creeping stems [26]. Salmonberry is known for its prolific sprouting ability. It can sprout vigorously from the stump, root crown, stem base or root stock, and from a dense network of rhizomes [5,61,70]. Regeneration through rooting aerial stem tips has also been reported [5]. Salmonberry exhibits vigorous vegetative response to fire, mechanical removal, and other types of disturbance but spreads vegetatively even in the absence of disturbance. Vegetative regeneration is largely responsible for the clonal spread of this species and is particularly important in perpetuating colonies in shaded understory habitats [5]. Stand dynamics are primarily related to mortality and the rate at which new individual ramets develop [61]. As older ramets die they are replaced by new ramets, and the population tends to remain relatively stable [61]. Under ordinary circumstances, recruitment of new genets through seedling establishment is relatively rare [61].. Stump-sprouting: Once aboveground foliage has been damaged or removed, buds present on the stump exhibit the greatest immediate potential for regrowth [70]. These sprouts soon establish apical dominance and inhibit other less active buds located at or below the ground surface [70]. The number of these buds which are capable of sprouting is largely determined by the height of the remaining stump [70]. Stem base, root stock, or root crown: The second portion of the salmonberry bud bank, which is activated after removal of the stump, is the stem base or root crown. These buds, located at or below the soil surface, are afforded greater protection than those on the stump. However, these buds tend to develop more slowly than stump buds because of the cooler environment in which they occur [70]. In general, the deeper the bud, the slower the sprouting response [70]. Buds located on the stem base or root crown can ordinarily be eliminated only through extreme soil disturbance [7]. Rhizomes: Rhizomes represent the most complex and largest segment of the salmonberry bud bank [70]. These structures are capable of relatively rapid production of aerial stems [61] and are responsible for local increases in stem density [5]. Ramets are connected by a complicated network of rhizomes which average 0.2 to 2.0 inches (5-50 mm) in diameter and generally lie 1 to 2 inches (2-5 cm) below mineral soil [61]. Rhizomes often extend to depths of 3.9 to 7.9 inches (10-20 cm) and although usually restricted to the top foot (31 cm) of soil, can extend to depths of 6 feet (1.8 m) or more [70]. Rhizome development is often extensive. In some clearcuts, total rhizome length averages up to 42 miles (68 km) per stand [70]. Averages of 20 to 30 miles (32-48 km) per stand are common in areas which have been logged [70]. Rhizome growth and development is related to basal area of the stand, age of the parent plant, and site characteristics. Greater basal areas are generally correlated with more extensive rhizome growth [70]. However, large, old rhizomes generally possess fewer buds and exhibit somewhat reduced sprouting abilities compared with young rhizomes [70]. Young rhizomes are generally capable of rapid and active growth. Oneto two-year-old rhizomes typically exhibit high bud densities (1 to 2 per inch (2-5 cm)) [70]. Rhizome growth has been found to vary by site as shown below [61]: annual growth site (m) 1.9 clearcuts 0.7 red alder 0.4 conifer 0.1 riparian On extremely rocky sites, rhizomes may be uncommon or even absent [61]. Layering: Salmonberry can spread as downward arching aerial canes which become buried by litter, subsequently root, and produce new aerial shoots [5]. Aboveground portions of the cane can also root and produce new clones when damaged mechanically [5]. Seed: Species within the genus Rubus grow from perennial root stocks or creeping aboveground stems during their first year of development and produce sterile vegetative shoots known as primocanes [26]. Lateral branches, or floricanes, develop in the axils of the primocanes during the second year and produce both leaves and flowers [26]. The showy flowers of salmonberry are pollinated by insects and hummingbirds [5,49]. Salmonberry generally produces large numbers of seed annually [5]. Immature fruit is pink and hard [8]. Ripe "berries" are red, yellow, or orange and are made up of an aggregate of many small drupelets [5,8,66]. "Berries" average 30 per shrub [45]. Germination: Salmonberry seeds have a hard, impermeable coat and a dormant embryo [5,8]. Consequently, germination is often slow, and generally requires some form of mechanical or chemical scarification [5]. Most Rubus seeds require, as a minimum, warm stratification at 68 to 86 degrees F (20 to 30 degrees C) for 90 days, followed by cold stratification at 36 to 41 degrees F (2 to 5 degrees C) for an additional 90 days [8]. Stratification occurs naturally as seeds mature in summer and remain in the soil throughout the cold winter months. Laboratory tests indicate that exposure to sulfuric acid solutions or sodium hyperchlorite prior to cold stratification can enhance germination [8]. Light is not required for germination; germination can proceed despite relatively low temperatures [5]. Most germination occurs during the first growing season after disturbance. Ruth [53] observed that second season germination represented only 6 percent of that which occurred during the first growing season. Seed banking: Salmonberry seed is typically long-lived when buried in the soil or duff [5]. Large numbers of seed are present in the topsoil of many coastal forest stands [36]. Seed dispersal: Salmonberry seed is readily dispersed by many birds and mammals [5,8]. After they mature, the highly sought-after fruits rarely remain on the plant for long [8]. Evidence suggests that the action of avian gizzards and exposure to mammalian digestive acids provide beneficial scarification which enhances germination [5]. A relatively long period of fruiting in salmonberry (2 months) increases the probability of seed dispersal as flocks of migrating birds move through an area [5]. Seedling establishment: Salmonberry seedlings require mineral soil for good early development, and establishment is generally poor unless the soil has been disturbed [5]. Scarification following timber harvest generally creates an excellent seedbed for salmonberry. Large numbers of seedlings can readily establish on sites which have been logged and then scarified [53]. Researchers have observed up to 500,000 seedlings per acre (1,234,568/ha) in some scarified cutting units [53]. The presence of a thick leaf mat can inhibit seedling establishment [5]. SITE CHARACTERISTICS : Salmonberry grows on a wide range of sites. It is particularly prevalent on mesic sites in forest openings, along waterways, on river terraces, gravel bars and avalanche chutes, or in seeps and swamps [10,17,29,34,66]. Salmonberry is abundant along roadsides, fencerows, and on many types of disturbed sites [5]. Soils: Species within the Rubus genus typically grow well on a variety of barren, infertile soils [8]. Salmonberry tolerates a wide range of soil types and grows well on rich loam, loamy clays, pure peat, and excessively drained gravel [5]. Soils tend to be acidic and of relatively low fertility [5]. Soils supporting salmonberry are often saturated for much of the year [29]. Good growth has been reported on rocky alluvium with a high percentage of fines and a well-developed humus layer [10]. In the Siskiyou Mountains of southern Oregon and northern California, soils are frequently derived from diorite or gabbro [68]. Elevation: Salmonberry typically grows at low to middle elevations [34]. In western Washington, it is particularly abundant under forest canopies at lower elevations but is largely restricted to stream and lake margins at higher elevation [5]. Generalized elevational ranges in California and Washington are as follows [5,48]: < 1,000 feet (305 m) in CA from 0 to 4,500 feet (0-1,400 m) in WA SUCCESSIONAL STATUS : Salmonberry is a pioneer or early seral species noted for its ability to spread aggressively on disturbed sites [5]. A certain amount of soil disturbance is essential for good seedling establishment. Seedlings generally appear in abundance after fire, timber harvest, or other types of disturbance [1,2,5,53,69]. Rhizomes enable salmonberry to spread vigorously and form dense patches where it was prevalent in predisturbance communities [5,61]. In many areas dense stands may form within 2 to 3 years after disturbance [61]. Salmonberry communities commonly develop early in succession in Sitka spruce and Pacific silver fir zones of Oregon and Washington [20], in Sitka spruce-western hemlock forests of Alaska, and in many Douglas-fir forests of the Pacific Northwest [18]. In northern California, salmonberry was abundant during the first 5 to 10 years after disturbance in grand fir-Douglas-fir-Sitka spruce communities and in early seral redwood-grand fir communities where it persisted, although in reduced abundance, for 30 years or more [71]. In many areas, the cover of salmonberry, a nitrogen-demanding species, begins to decline 2 to 5 years after clearcutting as available nutrients decline [39]. Salmonberry has been described as shade tolerant [5,53] and relatively intolerant of shade [22,27]. In some locations this shrub persists in climax forest communities; elsewhere it is gradually eliminated as the canopy closes. Although most common in early seral stages, salmonberry has also been reported in early immature, second growth, mature, and old growth forests in British Columbia [39,45]. Alaback [2] noted that salmonberry is gradually eliminated in Sitka spruce-western hemlock forests of Alaska as the forest overstory develops. However, other researchers have reported salmonberry in climax western hemlock or western hemlock-Douglas-fir forests of British Columbia [27,39,45] and in climax coastal forests to the south [53]. Salmonberry commonly persists within the understory of various hardwood communities [5]. It can reportedly persist almost indefinitely in the understory of alder or mixed hardwood-conifer stands [5]. Salmonberry is more likely to be eliminated in coniferous forests where light levels are lower. However, in many coniferous stands, parts of salmonberry clones senesce, die, and decay as the overstory canopy closes, but then the clone slowly expands as self-thinning of the conifers occurs [61]. Tappeiner and others [61] noted that "the natural success of salmonberry communities may result in relatively permanent pure shrub communities." Salmonberry is present in red alder communities of the Northwest, which on certain upland sites appear to be early seral stages of western hemlock forests [32]. However, where these communities occur along streambanks, periodic flooding can maintain species such as salmonberry, red alder, and stink currant in long-lived disclimax situations [10,32]. SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT : The leaves of salmonberry begin to appear early in the spring, often when the ground is still covered with snow [5]. Researchers in western Washington have observed the first leaves by March 21, at which time initial annual rhizome growth was also noted [5]. Flowering dates depend on geographic and climatic factors, but flowering usually occurs from early to late spring. In many areas along the Pacific Coast, the time of flowering appears to be correlated with the arrival of the migrating rufous hummingbird, which may serve as an important pollinator [49]. Generalized flowering and fruiting dates by location are as follows [5,8,45,66]: location flowering fruit-ripening AK May-June June-August AK April-June early July (Aug. at higher elev.) CA March-June ----- w WA April May 16-July 26 BC -------- May-July Seed dispersal coincides with the time of fruit availability. In many areas, seed is dispersed from June through August [8]. The tips of the terminal buds remain active and continue elongating until August, when dormancy generally begins [5]. Leaves typically fall by late October or November [10,33]. Campbell and Franklin [10] observed maximum leaf drop in the western Cascades during the fourth week of October; 56 percent of the leaves dropped during the first 3 weeks after frost.

Related categories for Species: Rubus spectabilis | Salmonberry

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