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Wildlife, Animals, and Plants
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Introductory
SPECIES: Sarcobatus vermiculatus | Black Greasewood
ABBREVIATION :
SARVER
SYNONYMS :
S. vermiculatus var. baileyi (Coville) Jepson
SCS PLANT CODE :
SAVE4
COMMON NAMES :
black greasewood
greasewood
chico
TAXONOMY :
The fully documented scientific name of black greasewood is Sarcobatus
vermiculatus (Hook.)Torr. Two distinct chromosomal races have been
described (4n and 8n) but have not been shown to be correlated with
morphological or ecological characteristics [56].
LIFE FORM :
Shrub
FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS :
No special status
OTHER STATUS :
NO-ENTRY
COMPILED BY AND DATE :
D. Tirmenstein, February 1987
LAST REVISED BY AND DATE :
D. Tirmenstein, June 1990
AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION :
Tirmenstein, D. Sarcobatus vermiculatus. 1987. In: Remainder of Citation
DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
SPECIES: Sarcobatus vermiculatus | Black Greasewood
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION :
Black greasewood is widely distributed from the northern desert ranges
of Canada to Mexico [39]. It occurs in Washington and Oregon east of
the Cascades to southeastern California east of the Sierras [21]. Black
greasewood extends eastward to the Dakotas, Wyoming, and Colorado, and
southward into northwestern New Mexico and Texas [21]. It is a dominant
species throughout much of the Great Basin [50].
ECOSYSTEMS :
FRES17 Elm - ash - cottonwood
FRES21 Ponderosa pine
FRES29 Sagebrush
FRES30 Desert shrub
FRES35 Pinyon - juniper
FRES36 Mountain grasslands
FRES38 Plains grasslands
FRES40 Desert grasslands
STATES :
AZ CA CO ID KS MT NV NM ND OK
OR SD TX UT WA WY AB BC SK MEXICO
ADMINISTRATIVE UNITS :
ARCH BADL BICA CANY CARE CHCU
COLM DEVA DINO FOBU GLCA GRCA
GRTE GRSA JODA MEVE NABR PEFO
THRO WUPA YELL
BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS :
5 Columbia Plateau
6 Upper Basin and Range
7 Lower Basin and Range
8 Northern Rocky Mountains
9 Middle Rocky Mountains
10 Wyoming Basin
11 Southern Rocky Mountains
12 Colorado Plateau
13 Rocky Mountain Piedmont
15 Black Hills Uplift
16 Upper Missouri Basin and Broken Lands
KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS :
K011 Western ponderosa forest
K016 Eastern ponderosa forest
K017 Black Hills pine forest
K018 Pine - Douglas-fir forest
K023 Juniper - pinyon woodland
K037 Mountain mahogany - oak scrub
K038 Great Basin sagebrush
K039 Blackbrush
K040 Saltbush - greasewood
K041 Creosotebush
K051 Wheatgrass - bluegrass
K055 Sagebrush steppe
K056 Wheatgrass - needlegrass shrubsteppe
K057 Galleta - three-awn shrubsteppe
K063 Foothills prairie
K064 Grama - needlegrass - wheatgrass
K065 Grama - buffalograss
K066 Wheatgrass - needlegrass
K098 Northern floodplain forest
SAF COVER TYPES :
237 Interior ponderosa pine
239 Pinyon - juniper
SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES :
211 Creosotebush scrub
314 Big sagebrush-bluebunch wheatgrass
315 Big sagebrush-Idaho fescue
316 Big sagebrush-rough fescue
320 Black sagebrush-bluebunch wheatgrass
321 Black sagebrush-Idaho fescue
401 Basin big sagebrush
403 Wyoming big sagebrush
405 Black sagebrush
408 Other sagebrush types
414 Salt desert shrub
501 Saltbush-greasewood
506 Creosotebush-bursage
HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES :
Black greasewood is an indicator of nonclimatic (physiographic, edaphic,
or biotic) climax in a number of saltbush (Atriplex spp.), sagebrush
(Artemisia spp.), and sagebrush-grassland communities. It occurs as a
codominant with western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), basin wildrye
(Leymus cinereus), bottlebrush squirreltail (Elymus elymoides),
saltgrass (Distichlis spicata), ricegrass (Oryzopsis spp.), big
sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata), budsage (A. spinescens), rubber
rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus nauseosus), and shadscale (Atriplex
confertifolia). Published classifications listing black greasewood as a
plant community dominant or indicator are:
Vegetation and soils of the Cow Creek Watershed [2]
Vegetation and soils of Churchill Canyon Watershed [3]
Distribution of plant communities in southeastern Montana badlands [6]
Steppe vegetation of Washington [9]
Sagebrush-steppe habitat types in northern Colorado: a first
approximation [14]
Preliminary habitat types of a semiarid grassland [15]
The vegetation of the Grand River/Cedar River, Sioux, and Ashland
Districts of the Custer National Forest: a habitat type classification [19]
A series vegetation calssification for Region 3 [31]
Grassland an shrubland habitat types of western Montana [33]
A vegetation classification system applied to southern California [36]
Grassland and shrubland habitat types of the Shoshone National Forest [58]
Sagebrush steppe [63]
Plant associates: Other plants commonly occurring with black greasewood
include black sagebrush (A. nova), Nevada ephedra (Ephedra nevadensis),
Nuttall's saltbush (Atriplex nuttallii), fourwing saltbush (A.
canescens), green rabbitbrush (C. visicidiflorus), Russian-thistle
(Salsola kali), spiny hopsage (Grayia spinosa), alkali sacton
(Sporobolus airoides), cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum), and pickleweed
(Allenrolfea occidentalis) [13,29]. Understory vegetation is often
sparse in black greasewood communities. Bare soil may represent a
fairly large percentage of the cover and plants are often widely spaced.
In a western Utah study, greasewood averaged 13 individuals per square
rod [13].
VALUE AND USE
SPECIES: Sarcobatus vermiculatus | Black Greasewood
WOOD PRODUCTS VALUE :
NO-ENTRY
IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE :
Black greasewood is a valuable browse for livestock and wildlife,
particularly during fall and winter [50,55]. It does, however, contain
soluable oxalates which are poisonous to livestock when the plant is
eaten in large quantities [59,62]. Consumption of black greasewood has
resulted in mass sheep mortality but cattle are rarely poisoned [55].
Sheep generally die after consuming approximately 2 pounds (0.9 kg) of
leaves, but cattle can eat 3 to 4 pounds (1.4-1.8 kg) before death
occurs [62]. Toxicity generally increases in fall as the plant matures
[62], but concentrated feeding on the young stems and leaves during the
early spring can cause illness or death [50]. Livestock poisoning is
rarely a problem where greasewood grows intermixed with other forage
species [29].
In many areas, black greasewood provides forage for pronghorn and mule
deer [29,59]. Small mammals such as the white-tailed prairie dog,
chisel-toothed kangaroo rat, Ord kangaroo rat, painted chipmunk, western
chipmunk, porcupine, and jackrabbits also feed on black greasewood
[4,50,59].
PALATABILITY :
Palatability of black greasewood varies geographically and with site
characteristics. Foliage tends to concentrate alkalines, and this shrub
may be less palatable on some sites, such as on certain California
alkali flats, than on many other western sites [51]. Palatability of
black greasewood has been rated as follows [10,51]:
CA CO MT ND UT WY
Cattle Fair-Useless Poor Fair Fair Fair Fair
Sheep Fair-Poor Fair Fair Fair Fair Fair
Horses Useless Poor Fair Fair Fair Fair
Domestic goats Fair-Poor ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
Pronghorn ---- ---- Fair Fair Fair Fair
Elk ---- ---- Poor ---- Poor Poor
Mule deer Poor ---- Poor Good Fair Fair
White-tailed deer ---- Fair Poor ---- ---- Poor
Small mammals ---- ---- ---- ---- Fair Fair
Small nongame birds ---- ---- ---- ---- Fair Poor
Upland game birds ---- Poor ---- ---- Fair ----
Waterfowl ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- Poor
NUTRITIONAL VALUE :
Black greasewood is rated fair in energy and protein value [10].
Average crude protein content of Montana greasewood from 2 seasons
averaged 8.4 percent and 9.0 percent [23]. Nutritional content as
established by the National Academy of Sciences [35] is as follows:
Browse Buds (fresh)
Ash % 14.6 16.3
Crude fiber % 23.5 9.3
Ether extract % 3.4 3.3
N-free extract % 37.3 36.8
Protein (Nx6.25) % 21.4 34.3
Calcium % 0.91 ----
Phosphorus % 0.18 ----
Copper mg/kg 15.7 ----
Manganese mg/kg 25.8 ----
Carotene mg/kg 43.4 ----
Cobolt mg/kg 0.060 ----
COVER VALUE :
The spiny-tipped branches and coarse structure of black greasewood
provide good cover for small nesting birds and for many species of small
mammals. Cover value has been rated as follows [8,10,26]:
CO MT ND OR UT WY
Pronghorn ---- Fair Fair ---- Fair Good
Elk ---- Poor ---- ---- Poor Fair
Mule deer Good Fair Good Poor Fair ----
White-tailed deer Good Fair ---- ---- ---- Fair
Small mammals Good Good ---- Good Good Fair
Small nongame birds Fair Good ---- Good Good Fair
Upland game birds ---- Fair ---- ---- Good Poor
Waterfowl ---- Poor Good ---- ---- ----
VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES :
Black greasewood is well-suited for stabilizing disturbed sites such as
mine spoils and road scars on saline or alkaline soils [29,37]. It is
rated as having low to moderate potential for erosion control and for
short-term revegetation, but moderate to high potential for long-term
revegetation projects [10]. Plants may be transplanted, propagated from
cuttings, or grown from seed [37,42].
Transplants: Black greasewood has been successfully transplanted onto
mine spoils in New Mexico, Utah, and Wyoming [16,27,60]. At a mine site
in southwestern Wyoming, mature plants were transplanted onto an
overburden dump with a pH of 7.0 to 7.5 [27]. Establishment of mature
black greasewood provided some immediate cover for wildlife and created
islands for later seed dispersal. Relative costs and first-year
survivorship were documented as follows [27]:
# transplanted # surviving % survival cost/plant
mature wildlings 31 30 97 $2.26
front-end loader
transplants 8 8 100 $4.49
Survivorship 5 years after transplants were established at a Uinta Basin
site averaged 75 percent, with an average height of 15 inches (38 cm)
[16].
Seed: Black greasewood has been successfully seeded onto mine spoils in
southwestern Wyoming and elsewhere [27]. At least 500 pounds (227 kg)
of seed is sold annually [39]. Seed can remain viable for more than 5
years if stored properly [39]. Seed from a nearby source should be used
to ensure that the particular ecotype selected will grow well in the
desired location [39]. Appropriate seed collection and storage
techniques have been examined in detail [39].
Cuttings: Rooting greasewood cuttings is difficult and success may
depend in part on yearly variations in temperature and precipitation
[42]. Cuttings from greenhouse-grown plants tend to root more readily
than do cuttings obtained from field-grown plants [42].
Black greasewood concentrates large amounts of sodium in the surface
soils under the canopy [45]. This sodium accumulation may eventually
alter the soil chemistry, making reclamation more difficult [49].
OTHER USES AND VALUES :
Black greasewood has traditionally been used as fuel and for planting
sticks by the Hopi and other Native American peoples [55].
MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
Grazing: Black greasewood increases in response to grazing [33].
Greasewood's typical valley-bottom habitat makes this community best
suited for late fall, winter, and early spring cattle range [33].
Chemical and mechanical control: Black greasewood is difficult to
control with herbicides, fire, or mechanical treatments [7,33]. Plants
commonly sprout after application of various herbicides [62]. After
partial kill by herbicides, black greasewood typically exhibits an
increased growth rate and a lengthened period of accelerated vegetative
development [49].
Soil chemistry: Sodium, the major cation present in black greasewood
leaves, may comprise up to 69 to 88 percent (57-115 mg/g) of the total
cations present [45]. Sodium uptake by black greasewood and the
associated decay of sodium-enriched leaf litter can alter soil chemistry
[43,45]. Erosion, resulting from or increased by overgrazing, can also
result in increased soil salinity [43,45]. These soil changes may
eventually make a site too harsh for the growth of sagebrush (Artemisia
spp.) [43].
BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
SPECIES: Sarcobatus vermiculatus | Black Greasewood
GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS :
Black greasewood is a native, long-lived, winter deciduous, perennial
shrub which grows 3.3 to 8.2 feet (1.0-2.5 m) in height [11,46,55]. It
is most typically a freely-branched and spreading shrub, although
rounded and erect growth forms also occur [20,55].
Branches, some of which end in spines, are rigid and numerous [20,55].
Bark is smooth and whitish, and graying at maturity [21,55]. Black
greasewood typically has a long taproot. Roots can extend 20 to 57 feet
(6.1-17.4 m) below the soil surface [13]. Leaves of black greasewood
are simple, linear, alternate, and fleshy, with entire margins [20,55].
The leaves are shed in winter.
Numerous staminate flowers are borne on fleshy, catkinlike terminal
spikes, whereas pistillate flowers form singly or in pairs in the axils
of leaflike bracts [7,55]. Fruit is a small, coriaceous achene which is
winged at the middle [55,59,61]. The fruit contains small brown seeds
[34,61].
RAUNKIAER LIFE FORM :
Phanerophyte
REGENERATION PROCESSES :
Seed: Black greasewood is generally monoecious. Staminate and
pistillate flowers mature at different times, thus maximizing
opportunities for cross-pollination [49]. According to McArthur and
Sanderson [30], the investment in male and female functions varies from
dry to mesic sites, allowing for efficient occupation of patchy,
stressful, and heterogeneous environments. Seeds mature in the fall and
are dehisced over the winter [49].
Some seed is produced annually [39,55], but abundant seed production is
limited to occasional years [4]. Seed production also apparently varies
according to levels of disturbance. Roundy and others [49] report that
black greasewood is a poor seed producer on undisturbed sites. Only 20
percent of the plants on undisturbed sites produced seed, with an
average total of less than 20 seeds per plant [49]. However, where 30
percent of the black greasewood had been killed, resprouted plants
produced an average of 250 seeds [49]. Seed fill varies from 16 to 94
percent [11].
Germination: An afterripening period of 30 to 60 days is generally
required for the embryo to mature [11]. Laboratory studies have
indicated that optimum germination occurs within an average of 5.5 days
at a constant temperature of 52 degrees F (11 degrees C) and -16
moisture requirement bars [50]. Under natural conditions, most seeds
germinate during relatively long periods of high soil moisture [46].
The presence or absence of light does not appear to affect germination
rates [50]. The presence of the membranous pericarp and enclosing
papery bracts, however, does influence germination [64]. When the
pericarp was broken, the embryo uncoiled within an hour, and root hairs
developed within 24 hours [11]. When the pericarp remained undamaged,
the seeds quickly imbibed water, but germination was slow and many seeds
had not germinated after 30 days [11].
Both inter- and intra-population differences in germination have been
observed at varying osmotic potentials and salt concentrations, and
ecotypic variation in germination characteristics is suspected [46]. A
certain proportion of seed commonly fails to germinate at low osmotic
potential or where salt concentrations are high. These remaining seeds
may germinate later, thus representing an adaptation to a range of
environmental conditions [46].
Vegetative regeneration: Black greasewood typically sprouts after fire,
application of herbicides, and other types of disturbance [62,65].
SITE CHARACTERISTICS :
Black greasewood grows on dry, sunny, flat valley bottoms, on lowland
floodplains, in ephemeral stream channels, and at playa margins [49,57].
It is a dominant plant throughout much of the Great Basin and Mojave
Desert. Black greasewood occurs in salt shrublands, inland saltgrass,
northern and southern desert shrub, and pinyon-juniper communities
[34,37]. Black greasewood communities generally occur below the moister
sagebrush or shadscale zones [49]. In high saline areas, black
greasewood often grows in nearly pure stands, although on less saline
sites it commonly grows with a number of other shrub species and
typically has a grass understory [29].
Soil: The growth and distribution of black greasewood is affected by
soil salinity, ionic concentrations, soil depth, and total water
potential [48]. Black greasewood is often considered an indicator of
saline-sodic or relatively moist soils [44,50]. Sites typically have
clay-loam, silt-loam, or deep, fine, sandy loam soils with high salinity
or alkalinity [11,21]. Although black greasewood most commonly develops
on finely textured saline or alkaline soils, it occasionally grows on
coarsely textured nonsaline soils [46]. Black greasewood is often
abundant on outcrops of alkaline or salt-bearing shales with little soil
development [38,53].
In some areas, the salt content of the soil 3 feet (1 m) below the
surface reaches 1.08 percent [13]. When salinity increases above this
level, black greasewood becomes yellow and dwarfed [13]. Representative
pH levels at a black greasewood site are as follows [6]:
pH Na (me/100g) Ca (me/100g)
upper soil 7.9 9.1 9.1
lower soil 8.0 12.0 15.4
Exchangeable sodium can range up to 12.0 me/100 g, with a pH as high as
9.82 [11]. Black greasewood is highly tolerant of boron, as well as
sodium, in the soil beneath the canopy [43,48].
Climate: Black greasewood is tolerant of a wide range of climatic
conditions but most commonly grows in areas with hot, dry summers [44].
The distribution of black greasewood is thought to be highly dependent
on a high soil moisture content below the depth of seasonal
precipitation percolation [45,57]. It commonly occurs in areas with a
seasonally high water table and is often the only green shrub in pluvial
desert sites with available groundwater [63]. Average annual
precipitation ranges from 5 to 10 inches (12-25 cm) [48]. The water
table is generally within 14.8 feet (4.5 m) of the soil surface, and may
rise seasonally to 5 to 3.3 feet (1.5-1 m) below the surface [48].
Elevation: Elevational ranges by geographic area have been documented
as follows [10,34,61]:
from 3,000 to 7,000 feet (914-2,134 m) in CA
4,500 to 8,500 feet (1,373-2,593 m) in CO
4,000 to 7,118 feet (1,220-2,170 m) in UT
3,600 to 7,300 feet (1,098-2,227 m) in WY
SUCCESSIONAL STATUS :
Black greasewood, a long-lived species, occurs as a nonclimatic climax
indicator in many saltbush, sagebrush, or sagebrush-grassland
communities. It is described as a "stable dominant" under moist-sodic
edaphic climax conditons [11]. Black greasewood can compete after
disturbance and is also well represented in a number of early seral
communities. Many Great Basin sites now occupied by black greasewood
were formerly dominated by Great Basin wildrye (Leymus cinereus) or big
sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) [7,43]. Soil changes in the form of
increased salinity brought about by litter deposition of greasewood may
have led to the replacement of sagebrush [43]. With increasing salinity
(above 1.08 percent), black greasewood is replaced by species such as
inland saltgrass (Distichilis stricta var. stricta), pickleweed
(Allenrolfea occidentalis), or samphire (Salicornia utahensis) [13].
SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT :
Vegetative development: Leaves of black greasewood appear in mid to
late spring [55]. Vegetative growth is initially slow, but a period of
accelerated growth, lasting from 3 to 6 weeks, occurs annually from late
May to early July [49]. Increased soil temperatures may promote
accelerated growth of greasewood, while low soil moisture ends this
rapid period of growth [49]. Accelerated leader growth at a Nevada site
was documented as follows [49]:
Onset Date Cessation Date
Average Range Average Range
May 15 May 10-25 June 30 June 25-July 10
May 15 May 15 June 15 June 5-25
May 15 May 10-25 June 20 June 5-July 10
Leaves of black greasewood are shed in early fall or over the winter
months [49]. Phenological development of black greasewood at a
southwestern Colorado site was documented as follows [5]:
Stage Date
dormant October-December
early leaf March
full leaf April
flower buds developing April
early bloom May
fruit developing June
seed ripening July
seed shattering July-September
Flowering: The appearance of spikes coincides with the onset of rapid
growth, with spikes opening after maximum vegetative growth is completed
[49]. Reddish-green, winged utricles are formed by the pistillate
flowers from late July to late August [11,49]. Floral development at a
Nevada site was as follows [49]:
Staminate Staminate Staminate Winged calyxes Utricles
flowers appear flowers open flowers dried formed matured
May 25 June 8 July 1 July 20 October
May 16 June 7 June 20 July 25 October
Generalized flowering by geographic area is as follows [10,34]:
Location Beginning of flowering End of flowering
CA May August
CO May August
MT June June
ND June July
UT July October
WY May September
Seed matures from late July through November. Seeds are shed from late
fall through the following spring [11,49].
FIRE ECOLOGY
SPECIES: Sarcobatus vermiculatus | Black Greasewood
FIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS :
Black greasewood is generally only slightly harmed or undamaged by fire
[65]. It resprouts readily following fire and can also reestablish a
site through abundant, light, wind-dispersed seed [11,65].
Many black greasewood communities have insufficient fine fuels to carry
a fire and burn infrequently [7,17,65]. Vegetation between the widely
dispersed black greasewood plants may be sparse and many communities are
characterized by a large amount of bare soil. However, communities
which have considerable amounts of cheatgrass or which have been seeded
with crested wheatgrass (Agropyron cristatum) exhibit higher fire
frequencies [N. Shaw, pers. comm. 1990].
POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY :
Tall shrub, adventitious-bud root crown
Initial-offsite colonizer (off-site, initial community)
FIRE EFFECTS
SPECIES: Sarcobatus vermiculatus | Black Greasewood
IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT :
Black greasewood is described as "slightly damaged to unharmed" by fire.
Plants are rarely killed even when fire consumes aboveground vegetation
[65].
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT :
NO-ENTRY
PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE :
Vegetative response: Black greasewood generally sprouts vigorously from
the stem base or roots following fire [9,65]. Rapid resprouting may
lead to an increase in stem density [65]. Black greasewood has
exhibited an increased growth rate and lengthened period of accelerated
growth after being partially killed by herbicides [49]. A similar
response may occur after the plant is partially killed by fire.
Seedling establishment: Black greasewood can reoccupy a site through an
abundance of light, wind-dispersed seed [11,65]. Evidence suggests that
resprouted greasewood on disturbed sites produces more seed than plants
growing in adjacent undisturbed communities [49]. However, Young [65]
observed relatively poor seed production in the first year after fire.
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE :
Although most studies indicate that black greasewood is relatively
unharmed by fire, the degree of damage may vary according to season of
burn, fuel loading, and intensity of fire. Following a fall fire in
Wyoming, Smith and others [54] noted that black greasewood exhibited
much greater mortality than would have been predicted on the basis of
its tendency to resprout. This fire was quite intense due to high total
fuel loads [54].
FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
Many black greasewood communities will burn only during "very hazardous"
fire conditions because of limited fuels [7].
REFERENCES
SPECIES: Sarcobatus vermiculatus | Black Greasewood
REFERENCES :
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Index
Related categories for Species: Sarcobatus vermiculatus
| Black Greasewood
|
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