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Wildlife, Animals, and Plants
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Introductory
SPECIES: Toxicodendron radicans | Poison-Ivy
ABBREVIATION :
TOXRAD
SYNONYMS :
Rhus radicans L.
Rhus toxicodendron L.
R. t. var. malacotrichocarpa (A. H. Moore) Fern.
SCS PLANT CODE :
TORA2
COMMON NAMES :
poison-ivy
eastern poison-ivy
vine poison-ivy
TAXONOMY :
The currently accepted name of poison-ivy is Toxicodendron radicans (L.)
Kuntze; it is in the cashew family (Anacardiaceae) [39]. Poison-ivy is
a highly variable taxon. There is disagreement in the literature
regarding this species and its infrataxa. This report follows the
nomeclature of Gillis [39]. Recognized subspecies are geographical
segregates. Two subspecies present in eastern Asia are T. r. ssp.
orientale and T. r. ssp. hispidum [39]. Subspecies found in North and
Central Americas are [39]:
Taxon Location
T. r. ssp. radicans Atlantic Coast
T. r. ssp. barkleyi Gillis Mexico & Central America
T. r. ssp. divaricatum (Greene) F. A. Barkl. Mexico & Arizona
T. r. ssp. eximium (Greene) Gillis Mexico & Texas
T. r. ssp. negundo (Greene) Gillis west of Appalachians
T. r. ssp. pubens (Engelm. ex S. Wats.) Gillis southeastern United States
T. r. ssp. verrucosum (Scheele) Gillis Oklahoma & Texas.
LIFE FORM :
Vine, Shrub
FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS :
No special status
OTHER STATUS :
NO-ENTRY
COMPILED BY AND DATE :
Diane S. Pavek, December 1992
LAST REVISED BY AND DATE :
NO-ENTRY
AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION :
Pavek, Diane S. 1992. Toxicodendron radicans. In: Remainder of Citation
DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
SPECIES: Toxicodendron radicans | Poison-Ivy
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION :
The range of poison-ivy extends from southern Ontario east to Nova
Scotia and Prince Edward Island [47,59,70,103]. Poison-ivy occurs in
all states east of the southern Cascades, Great Basin, and Mojave Desert
[39,41,60,95,104]. Populations continue southward through Central
America to Guatemala [18,39,40,60,112]. Poison-ivy is also native to
eastern Asia [39].
Although poison-ivy has been listed as occurring in the following parks,
it is probably misindentified, as these parks are within the range
limits of western poison-ivy (Toxicondendron rydbergii): Arches
National Park (ARCH), Canyonlands National Park (CANY), Capitol Reef
National Park (CARE), Coulee Dam Recreation Area (CODA), Glacier
National Park (GLAC), Grand Teton National Park (GRTE), Gulf Islands
National Seashore (GUIS), John Day Fossil Beds National Monument (JODA),
Natchez Trace Parkway (NATR), Natural Bridges National Monument (NABR),
Timpanogos Cave National Monument (TICA), Yellowstone National Park
(YELL), Zion National Park (ZION). [See the western poison ivy write-up
in the FEIS data base.]
ECOSYSTEMS :
FRES12 Longleaf - slash pine
FRES13 Loblolly - shortleaf pine
FRES14 Oak - pine
FRES15 Oak - hickory
FRES16 Oak - gum - cypress
FRES17 Elm - ash - cottonwood
FRES18 Maple - beech - birch
FRES19 Aspen - birch
FRES21 Ponderosa pine
FRES33 Southwestern shrubsteppe
FRES35 Pinyon - juniper
FRES38 Plains grasslands
FRES39 Prairie
STATES :
AL AZ AR CO CT DE FL GA IL IN
IA KS KY LA ME MD MA MI MO NH
NJ NM NY NC ND OH OK PA RI SC
SD TN TX VT VA WV NS ON PE PQ
MEXICO
ADMINISTRATIVE UNITS :
ACAD ALPO ANTI ASIS BADL BAND
BIBE BICY BISO BITH BLRI BUFF
CACH CACO CAHA CALO CACA CATO
CHCH COLO COSW CORO CUGA CUIS
CUVA DEWA DINO EFMO EVER FIIS
FOBO FODO GATE GWCA GWMP GRSM
GUMO HOBE HOSP INDU ISRO JECA
JOFL LAMR MACA MANA MEVE MORR
NERI OBRI OZAR PIRO RICH ROCR
ROMO SAGU SHEN SHIL SLBE THRO
VAFO WACA WICR
BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS :
7 Lower Basin and Range
13 Rocky Mountain Piedmont
14 Great Plains
16 Upper Missouri Basin and Broken Lands
KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS :
K023 Juniper - pinyon woodland
K024 Juniper steppe woodland
K031 Oak - juniper woodlands
K061 Mesquite - acacia savanna
K067 Wheatgrass - bluestem - needlegrass
K069 Bluestem - grama prairie
K072 Sea oats prairie
K079 Palmetto prairie
K080 Marl - everglades
K081 Oak savanna
K086 Juniper - oak savanna
K091 Cypress savanna
K098 Northern floodplain forest
K099 Maple - basswood forest
K100 Oak - hickory forest
K101 Elm - ash forest
K102 Beech - maple forest
K103 Mixed mesophytic forest
K104 Appalachian oak forest
K106 Northern hardwoods
K110 Northeastern oak - pine forest
K111 Oak - hickory - pine forest
K112 Southern mixed forest
K113 Southern floodplain forest
SAF COVER TYPES :
14 Northern pin oak
20 White pine - northern red oak - red maple
24 Hemlock - yellow birch
25 Sugar maple - beech - yellow birch
26 Sugar maple - basswood
27 Sugar maple
40 Post oak - blackjack oak
42 Bur oak
52 White oak - black oak - northern red oak
53 White oak
59 Yellow-poplar - white oak - northern red oak
60 Beech - sugar maple
61 River birch - sycamore
62 Silver maple - American elm
63 Cottonwood
64 Sassafras - persimmon
65 Pin oak - sweetgum
70 Longleaf pine
71 Longleaf pine - scrub oak
74 Cabbage palmetto
75 Shortleaf pine
76 Shortleaf pine - oak
80 Loblolly pine - shortleaf pine
81 Loblolly pine
82 Loblolly pine - hardwood
83 Longleaf pine - slash pine
88 Willow oak - water oak - diamondleaf oak
89 Live oak
92 Sweetgum - willow oak
93 Sugarberry - American elm - green ash
94 Sycamore - sweetgum - American elm
95 Black willow
96 Overcup oak - water hickory
97 Atlantic white-cedar
98 Pond pine
100 Pondcypress
101 Baldcypress
102 Baldcypress - tupelo
108 Red maple
SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES :
NO-ENTRY
HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES :
Poison-ivy is not an indicator or uniquely associated with a particular
community type [119]. It is a dominant understory plant in Gambel oak
(Quercus gambelii) community type [80]. Poison-ivy was one of the seven
most frequently occurring plants in the herbaceous layer of a shagbark
hickory (Carya ovata) community type. There were an average of 3,540
stems per acre (8741 stems/ha), with 80 individuals attaining a size
class 2 (0.01-0.5 inch [0.03-1.3 cm] d.b.h.) [113]. Poison-ivy was an
understory dominant in a northern pin oak (Quercus ellipsoidalis)-
cherrybark oak (Quercus falcata var. pagodaefolia) community.
Poison-ivy occurred with 55 percent relative frequency in the Wisconsin
habitat type white pine/hog peanut (Pinus strobus/Amphicarpa bracteata)
[63].
Poison-ivy is subdominant in Nebraska smooth sumac-American hazel (Rhus
glabra-Corylus americana) associes, bur oak-bitternut hickory (Quercus
macrocarpa-Carya cordiformis) associes, and green ash-American elm
(Fraxinus pennsylvanica-Ulmus americana) associes [3]. It is
subdominant in buffaloberry (Shepherdia argentea) communities in North
Dakota [51]. Poison-ivy occurs in the spike grass-beardgrass-croton
(Uniola laxa-Andropogon spp.-Croton glandulosus) community type [10].
Poison-ivy is listed as a dominant in the following community or habitat
type publications:
(1) Phytogeographia Laurentiana. II. The principal plant associations
of the Saint Lawrence Valley [20].
(2) The "big woods" of Minnesota: its structure, and relation to
climate, fire, and soils [21].
(3) Field guide to forest habitat types of northern Wisconsin [63].
(4) Woodland communities and soils of Fort Bayard, southwestern New
Mexico [80].
(5) An ecological investigation of the oakwood bottoms Greentree
Reservoir in Illinois [113].
VALUE AND USE
SPECIES: Toxicodendron radicans | Poison-Ivy
WOOD PRODUCTS VALUE :
NO-ENTRY
IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE :
Animals generally are not susceptible to poison-ivy-induced dermatitis
[60,109].
In southern Indiana, poison-ivy was one of the seven most important taxa
consumed in winter by white-tailed deer [106]. Two studies showed that
white-tailed deer preferred to eat poison-ivy over other available
browse [55,85]. Poison-ivy leaves were eaten by white-tailed deer with
greater frequency in summer (81 percent) than in spring (67 percent)
[85,106]. Nixon and others [90] reported that white-tailed deer ate
poison-ivy fruits as a principal food item; fruits were consumed fall
through spring.
Poison-ivy produces soft mast [88]. A wide variety of migrant and
resident nongame and upland game birds consume the fruits; it is
considered a preferred species [11,45,56,64,77]. Ripe fruits become
conspicuous and are usually one of the most abundant foods available for
birds in fall and winter [45,61,77,79,126].
PALATABILITY :
NUTRITIONAL VALUE :
NO-ENTRY
COVER VALUE :
NO-ENTRY
VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES :
For 50 years, poison-ivy has been planted to prevent dike erosion in the
Netherlands [39].
To restore Louisiana bottomland that had been cleared for farming, oaks
(Quercus spp.) were planted. Other species, including poison-ivy, were
allowed to move in naturally. Within several years, poison-ivy occurred
in all land sites in varying densities [5].
OTHER USES AND VALUES :
Poison-ivy sap has been used to make indelible ink [120].
Despite its dermatitis-causing properties, poison-ivy is cultivated in
gardens [39]. It is used for horticultural displays where it is valued
for its red autumn foliage [39].
MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
Poison-ivy sap causes allergic contact dermatitis in humans [72]. The
active agent is urushiol, which exudes from broken resin ducts in most
plant parts [84]. Plants are variously poisonous depending on time of
year and plant maturity, and people vary in susceptibility [79,109].
Symptoms and treatment are detailed [27,71,72,79]. Ingested leaves do
not confer immunity and can cause humans serious gastric disturbance
[60,109].
Poison-ivy is an important component in wetlands used for sewage
management. Secondarily treated waste water or waste water from a
septic tank has been dumped into pond cypress (Taxodium distichum var.
nutans) stands for over 45 years; numbers of poison-ivy plants did not
decline [87]. Ewel [29] compared vegetation occurring on cypress domes
after various treatments with waste water; poison-ivy persisted despite
the treatments. Nutrient changes did not exclude poison-ivy in New
Jersey wetlands; poison-ivy occurred with high cover in control and
developed sites near unpaved roads, septic systems along wetland edges,
and direct stormwater sewer outfall [26].
In eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides) stands thoughout the
Mississippi Valley, poison-ivy vines of 4 to 5 inches (10.2-12.7 cm) in
diameter grow up tree boles. There is conflicting literature stating
that poison-ivy does and does not inhibit eastern cottonwood diameter
growth [58].
Presence or absence of canopy cover does not influence poison-ivy
growth. There was no significant (p>0.05) difference in poison-ivy
productivity, measured as leaf area and biomass, after canopy removal in
mixed hardwood stands in southern Michigan [78]. With a gradual
increase in canopy closure (from 9 to 40 percent tree cover) and a
cessation of grazing, poison-ivy cover only marginally increased [32].
Poison-ivy sometimes is an invading species. Although no attempts were
made to control it, poison-ivy was a competing understory vegetation
with oak seedlings in Pennsylvania and Maryland [50]. Hardin [44]
evaluated an Ohio mixed oak-prairie tension zone that was not actively
managed for 22 years. Poison-ivy was not present originally; however,
after 22 years, it had an 8 percent cover in the transition zone.
Poison-ivy was a principal invader of this grassland, with greatest
abundance under overhanging tree limbs [44].
Biological Control: Grazing can control poison-ivy under specific
conditions; very heavy grazing inhibits fruit production [28]. However,
this is considered a stop-gap measure because release from grazing
results in heavy poison-ivy infestations [28].
In the southeastern United States, larvae of poison-ivy sawfly have been
studied as possible control agents for poison-ivy [28]. Poison-ivy is
parasitized by a rust (Pileolaria shiraiana) which may offer future
biological control [39].
Chemical Control: Poison-ivy should be treated with herbicide before
flowering [28]. However, Kunzmann and Bennett [68] suggest that
herbicide application should be at the height of the growing season,
which is after flowering. Evans [28] recommends using glyphosate at 1
to 4 pounds active ingredient per acre (1.1-4.5 kg ai/ha) in the spring
(May) or fall (September to November). Poison-ivy foliage has been
wiped with a 2 percent solution of glyphosate for successful control
[86]. Poison-ivy has been controlled with 3 to 4 pints active
ingredient per acre (3.5-4.7 L ai/ha) of imidazolinone [68].
BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
SPECIES: Toxicodendron radicans | Poison-Ivy
GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS :
Poison-ivy is a native dioecious shrub, subshrub, or woody vine with
various growth forms: dwarf, erect, decumbent, or high climbing [70].
It grows from 1.6 to 6.6 feet (0.5 to 2 m) high [70,109]. The trunk can
grow to 5.9 inches (15 cm) in diameter [70]. Adventitious roots allow
poison-ivy vines to grow to 150 feet (45.7 m) in length [22,70].
Rhizomes may be at the surface or deep in the soil [70]. Leaves are
three-foliate and deciduous [79]. Flowers are in axillary panicles.
The fruit is a dry, round drupe [109].
RAUNKIAER LIFE FORM :
Chamaephyte
Geophyte
Hemicryptophyte
REGENERATION PROCESSES :
Poison-ivy reproduces vegetatively and sexually [70]. It sprouts from
aboveground vines, rhizomes, and root crowns [70].
Plants take 3 years from seed to reach the flowering stage [39].
Artigas and Boerner [9] found 11 plus or minus 7 seeds per square foot
(116.8 plus or minus 75.2 germinable seeds/sq. m) in mineral soil to a
depth of 4 inches (10 cm) in a 20- to 60-year-old white and red pine
(Pinus strobus and P. resinosa) plantation.
Seeds have an oily covering and are primarily dispersed by animals
[79,88]. Since the covering is buoyant, the fruit is also dispersed by
waterways [79]. Poison-ivy seeds that had passed through sharp-tailed
grouse digestive tracts gave good to excellent germination after both
warm (86 degrees Fahrenheit [30 deg C]) and cold (68 degrees Fahrenheit
[20 deg C]) stratification [64]. Seeds regurgitated by a crow exhibited
90 percent germination [79].
SITE CHARACTERISTICS :
Poison-ivy grows in semiarid to humid regions [51,118,122]. One
exception is maritime areas where it grows in a perhumid climate with
localized fog [81,91]. Climate is typically continental, with short,
warm to hot summers and long, cold to cool winters [51,62]. Average
growing season ranges from about 150 days at its northern limit in
Quebec to 240 days in the south in Florida [54,62]. Minimum temperature
averages 41.6 degrees Fahrenheit (5.3 deg C) in the north and a maximum
average of 66.2 degrees Fahrenheit (19 deg C) in the west [54,128].
Annual precipitation averages from a minimum of 15.4 inches (391 mm) in
the northern part of its range and 18.3 inches (465 mm) in the western
part to a maximum of 57 inches (1,450 mm) at the southern limit
[35,48,51]. Snowfall averages between 12 and 74 inches (30.5-188 cm)
over most of its range [51].
Poison-ivy occurs in a large variety of soil conditions. Soil textures
may be poorly drained clays with gleying and mottling present
[34,38,44,98]. Soils also may be well-drained silty loams to loamy
sands [46,81,105,116,122]. Under loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) on
well-drained sites, poison-ivy had an average cover of 1.4 percent;
poison-ivy cover decreased to a trace in poorly drained swales of
Chinese tallowtree (Sapium sebiferum) [49]. In green ash-hickory
stands, poison-ivy seedlings were of higher importance (49.16) on silt
loam soil compared to 7.65 importance rating on silty clay soil [43].
Soil pH varies from acidic (pH 6.0) to moderately alkaline (pH 7.9)
[24,35].
Topography is flatland to rolling hills [33,56,116]. Poison-ivy also
occurs on steeper slopes in the southwestern states [71]. Upper
elevation limits for poison-ivy growth are 7,080 feet (2,158 m) in New
Mexico and 1,700 feet (518 m) in Tennessee [35,94].
Poison-ivy is found under all moisture conditions. It was the most
widely distributed species along a moisture gradient in central Illinois
[1]. Poison-ivy occurs most frequently on moist, open sites [71,113].
However, Archambault and others [8] noted that poison-ivy was most
characteristic of dry, open sites in Michigan.
Poison-ivy is an important species in swamps and is mostly restricted to
mixed swamps in Florida, not extending into bayheads [82]. It is
tolerant of brackish or mildly saline water [12]. Poison-ivy can
survive inundation and fluctuations in water levels (e.g., in cypress
(Taxodium spp.) swamps or cabbage palmetto (Sabal palmetto) communities)
because of adventitious roots along the climbing vine [118]. Seasonally
flooded areas often are more alkaline because decaying plant material is
washed away; poision-ivy grows better in these sites [82,83].
Poison-ivy decreased in importance with an increase in flooding depth
[83].
There was no difference in poison-ivy cover between a young oxbow marsh
area (inundated at some point during the year) and a mid-age oxbow.
Poison-ivy was not present on the oldest oxbow, located above the
floodplain [53].
Poison-ivy occurs on a large variety of sites. It is found in riparian
communities, gallery forests, open dry or wet woods, and hillsides
[100,121]. It occurs on sand dunes of lake shores and barrier islands
[10,75,92,128]. Poison-ivy roots on the bases of cypress (Taxodium
distichum) in large peat mats [23,25,83,102]. It is also found on
hammocks [4,62].
Poison-ivy is common in disturbed places, such as roadside thickets,
stone walls, fences, railroads, clearcuts, and orchards [18,59,104,111].
It also occurs in urban settings. Poison-ivy was 1 of 10 species most
important (42.4 percent frequency) in an herbaceous layer in the Bronx,
New York [127].
Common overstory associates of poison-ivy not included in Distribution
and Occurrence are bur oak-aspen (Populus tremuloides), green ash,
American elm, Florida torrey (Torreya taxifolia), southern red oak
(Quercus falcata), and blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica) [17,73,87,107,121].
Additionally, poison-ivy occurs with sycamore (Platanus wrightii),
boxelder (Acer negundo), wax myrtle (Myrica cerifera), and redbay
(Persea borbonia) [16,25,82,92, 117].
Common understory shrub associates are skunkbush (Rhus trilobata),
snowberry (Symphoricarpos occidentalis), common chokecherry (Prunus
virginiana), blackberries (Rubus spp.), trumpetcreeper (Campsis
radicans), and sweet fern (Comptonia peregrina) [34,37,94,107,125,128].
Associated vines are greenbrier (Smilax spp.), grapes (Vitis spp.), and
Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia) [57,93]. Other species
found with poison-ivy are broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicus,
heartleaf foamflower (Tiarella cordifolia), sweet spire (Itea
virginiana), brackenfern (Pteridium aquilinum), and lizardtail (Saururus
cernuus) [16,87,99,102,108,114].
SUCCESSIONAL STATUS :
Facultative Seral Species
Poison-ivy is a common intruder into ruderal sites in North America,
while in Japan, it is a component of old growth [39]. Poison-ivy is an
early competitor with other species that may become established in the
overstory [88]. Cowles [19] classified poison-ivy as a primary dune
colonizer, establishing before the xerophytic evergreen flora [19].
Poison-ivy is somewhat shade tolerant [67]. However, it was unable to
compete with an introduced noxious species, Brazilian pepper-tree
(Schinus terebinthifolius) in Florida pineland [74].
Poison-ivy occurs in subclimax associations of oak (Quercus spp.) and
aspen in the Great Plains and in climax types of sugar maple-basswood
(Acer saccharum-Tilia grandifolia) [14,21]. In sugar
maple-basswood/prairie ecotone, poison-ivy occurred with a 3 percent
frequency [65].
Poison-ivy occurs in late seral and climax communities. In secondary
succession of old fields, poison-ivy was present in seral stages of 30-
to 100-year-old stands (the pine stage with loblolly and shortleaf pines
[Pinus echinata]) and in 150-year-old stands (the pine-hardwood stage
with shortleaf pine, northern red oak [Quercus rubra], magnolia
[Magnolia grandiflora], and American beech [Fagus grandifolia]) [89].
In another study, poison-ivy occurred in late seral stages of
pine-hardwoods and in climax communities of magnolia and American beech
[69]. Poison-ivy was present in climax white oak (Quercus alba)-
American beech communities [91].
SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT :
Poison-ivy flowers when the leaves are about half open [70]. It blooms
May to July throughout its range [22,40,59,110]. Fruits mature from
August through November [95,104,111]. Fruit may persist until the
flowering next season [70,79]. Leaves are dropped after freezing
temperatures in the fall.
FIRE ECOLOGY
SPECIES: Toxicodendron radicans | Poison-Ivy
FIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS :
With its widespread distribution, poison-ivy is a component of many
fire-influenced communities. Rhizomes buried moderately deep in the
soil would survive most fires. Sprouting after fire indicates that
poison-ivy is adapted to moderately severe fires [31,55].
POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY :
Prostrate woody plant, stem growing on organic mantle
Surface rhizome/chamaephytic root crown
Rhizomatous shrub, rhizome in soil
Geophyte, growing points deep in soil
Secondary colonizer - off-site seed
FIRE EFFECTS
SPECIES: Toxicodendron radicans | Poison-Ivy
IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT :
Poison-ivy is top-killed by fire [56]. Fruits, with their fatty
covering, are probably killed along with aerial stems. Surviving
rhizomes and root crowns will sprout to establish stands [31]. Fire may
slow the development of surviving plants. Leafing out was delayed 1
month on burned plots compared to unburned plots in oak-hickory forests
in Tennessee [31].
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT :
NO-ENTRY
PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE :
Poison-ivy vines may survive under unburned litter [31]. These vines
provided a large portion of sprouting after a fire, although the
majority of poison-ivy growth appeared to be from rhizomes protected in
the soil [31]. This sprouting may result in denser growths than were
present before burning [31,37].
Poison-ivy has variable responses to burning, influenced by season of
burning, community type, and subsequent environmental conditions. It
significantly (p<0.05) increased on burned plots [31,55]. However,
Adams and others [2] rated poison-ivy as a decreaser after it was
eliminated from sites by both summer and late winter burning. In
Ontario pine-mixed hardwoods, poison-ivy decreased in frequency and
biomass after late spring (May, June, or July) burning [42,105].
However, in longleaf pine-turkey oak (Pinus palustris-Quercus laevis)
forest, poison-ivy had greater abundance on areas burned in mid-winter
(January) compared to controls [7]. In oak savanna, poison-ivy
increased after fall burning [6].
In a plains cottonwood (Populus sargentii) community that sustained
different classes of fire damage, poison-ivy was most abundant (had the
highest frequency) in stands with upper crown damage [96]. However, in
a similar study in a loblolly pine stand, poison-ivy increased more
after surface fire than it did after crown fire [52]. The highest
poison-ivy frequency occurred with a 2-year-fire/2-year-rest rotation
[124].
In bur oak-pin oak community, poison-ivy had higher frequency (12.7
percent) in plots burned annually for 14 years than in controls (5
percent) [123]. Poison-ivy was most abundant 4 years after being
top-killed during fall and spring prescribed fires [56]. In Michigan,
poison-ivy had the greatest frequency in communities 38 and 51 years
after fire [101].
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE :
NO-ENTRY
FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
Climbing vines of poison-ivy form fuel ladders; fine fuels in ladders
may be consumed in flare-ups [31].
The poison-ivy dermatitis-causing compound, urushiol, is not a volatile
oil; however, it can be carried by particles of soot when the plant is
burned [84,109,120]. Eyes especially should be protected [79].
The role of fire controlling poison-ivy has not been fully examined
[28]. In general, carbohydrate reserves remain high until flowering,
which precludes the use of spring fires as an effective control [28].
Prescribed fires and herbicide were tested for control of poison-ivy.
Significantly (p<0.05) more growing points were killed when glyphosate
was applied to burned plots than were killed in burned plots without
herbicide [31].
REFERENCES
SPECIES: Toxicodendron radicans | Poison-Ivy
REFERENCES :
1. Adams, Dwight E.; Anderson, Roger C. 1980. Species response to a
moisture gradient in central Illinois forests. American Journal of
Botany. 67(3): 381-392. [13295]
2. Adams, Dwight E.; Anderson, Roger C.; Collins, Scott L. 1982.
Differential response of woody and herbaceous species to summer and
winter burning in an Oklahoma grassland. Southwestern Naturalist. 27:
55-61. [6282]
3. Aikman, John M. 1926. Distribution and structure of the forests of
eastern Nebraska. University Studies. 26(1-2): 1-75. [6575]
4. Alexander, Taylor R. 1955. Observations on the ecology of the low
hammocks of southern Florida. Journal of the Florida Academy of
Sciences. 18(1): 21-27. [11467]
5. Allen, James A. 1990. Establishment of bottomland oak plantations on the
Yazoo National Wildlife Refuge Complex. Southern Journal of Applied
Forestry. 14(4): 206-210. [14615]
6. Apfelbaum, Steven I.; Haney, Alan W. 1990. Management of degraded oak
savanna remnants in the upper Midwest: preliminary results from three
years of study. In: Hughes, H. Glenn; Bonnicksen, Thomas M., eds.
Restoration `89: the new management challenge: Proceedings, 1st annual
meeting of the Society for Ecological Restoration; 1989 January 16-20;
Oakland, CA. Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Arboretum, Society
for Ecological Restoration: 280-291. [14705]
7. Arata, Andrew A. 1959. Effects of burning on vegetation and rodent
populations in a longleaf pine turkey oak association in north central
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Index
Related categories for Species: Toxicodendron radicans
| Poison-Ivy
|
 |
