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Wildlife, Animals, and Plants
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Introductory
SPECIES: Vaccinium myrtillus | Dwarf Bilberry
ABBREVIATION :
VACMYR
SYNONYMS :
Vaccinium oreophilum
SCS PLANT CODE :
VAMY2
VAMYM
VAMYO
COMMON NAMES :
dwarf bilberry
whortleberry
TAXONOMY :
The currently accepted scientific name of dwarf bilberry is Vaccinium
myrtillus L. [48]. It is placed within the section Myrtillus [69,92].
The following subspecies have been delineated on the basis of
morphological differences [92]:
Vaccinium myrtillus ssp. myrtillus
Vaccinium myrtillus ssp. oreophilum (Rydb.) Love, Love and Kapoor
The Vaccinium genus is taxonomically complex [14]. Hybridization and
polyploidy make delineation of species difficult [14,15]. Dwarf
bilberry may have received genetic material from globe huckleberry (V.
globulare), dwarf huckleberry (V. caespitosum), and/or blue huckleberry
(V. membranaceum) [13]. Some taxonomists believe that the blue
huckleberry may be a derivative of globe huckleberry and dwarf bilberry
[20]. Naturally occurring dwarf bilberry-lingonberry (V. vitis-idaea)
hybrids have been reported in parts of northern Europe [1,37,60,79].
Numerous intermediate forms have been observed, although fruit set is
apparently rare in these populations [44]. V. X intermedium Ruthe is a
natural hybrid resulting from a dwarf bilberry-lingonberry cross
[44,79,81].
LIFE FORM :
Shrub
FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS :
No special status
OTHER STATUS :
NO-ENTRY
COMPILED BY AND DATE :
D. Tirmenstein, August 10, 1990.
LAST REVISED BY AND DATE :
NO-ENTRY
AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION :
Tirmenstein, D. 1990. Vaccinium myrtillus. In: Remainder of Citation
DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
SPECIES: Vaccinium myrtillus | Dwarf Bilberry
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION :
Dwarf bilberry grows from British Columbia southward east of the
Cascades to central Oregon [42,92]. It occurs throughout the Rocky
Mountains from British Columbia and Alberta to northern New Mexico and
southern Arizona [92,98]. Dwarf bilberry reaches greatest abundance in
the southern Rockies, whereas the closely related and morphologically
similar grouse whortleberry is most abundant in the Northwest [13,20]
Disjunct populations of dwarf bilberry have been reported in the
interior Rocky Mountains [92]. This circumboreal species extends across
Europe and Asia [42,92]. Populations in southwestern Greenland are
believed to have originated from European plants [92].
ECOSYSTEMS :
FRES20 Douglas-fir
FRES21 Ponderosa pine
FRES23 Fir - spruce
FRES24 Hemlock - Sitka spruce
FRES26 Lodgepole pine
FRES28 Western hardwoods
STATES :
AZ CA CO ID MT NM OR UT WA WY
AB BC
ADMINISTRATIVE UNITS :
GLAC ROMO YELL
BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS :
5 Columbia Plateau
6 Upper Basin and Range
8 Northern Rocky Mountains
9 Middle Rocky Mountains
10 Wyoming Basin
11 Southern Rocky Mountains
12 Colorado Plateau
KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS :
K002 Cedar - hemlock - Douglas-fir forest
K004 Fir - hemlock
K011 Western ponderosa pine
K012 Douglas-fir forest
K013 Cedar - hemlock - pine forest
K015 Western spruce - fir forest
K018 Pine - Douglas-fir forest
K019 Arizona pine forest
K020 Spruce - fir - Douglas-fir forest
K021 Southwestern spruce - fir forest
SAF COVER TYPES :
205 Mountain hemlock
206 Engelmann spruce - subalpine fir
210 Interior Douglas-fir
211 White fir
217 Aspen
218 Lodgepole pine
219 Limber pine
227 Western redcedar - western hemlock
237 Interior ponderosa pine
SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES :
NO-ENTRY
HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES :
Dwarf bilberry is a common understory dominant or codominant in a
variety of coniferous forests of the Rocky Mountains. It occurs in
abundance in stands made up of subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa),
Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), Engelmann spruce (Picea
engelmannii), and white fir (Abies concolor). Dwarf bilberry is also an
understory dominant in lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta), ponderosa pine
(P> ponderosa), western hemlock-western redcedar (Tsuga
heterophylla-Thuja plicata, and quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides)
communities. Common understory codominants include grouse whortleberry,
skunkleaf polemonium (Polemonium pulcherrimum), northern twinflower
(Linnaea borealis), and thimbleberry (Rubus parviflorus) [6,4,78,98].
Published classifications listing dwarf bilberry as an indicator or
dominant in habitat types, community types, or plant associations are
presented below.
Classification of the forest vegetation of Wyoming [3]
Classification of the forest vegetation of Colorado by habitat type and
community type [4]
Classification of the forest vegetation on the National Forests of
Arizona and New Mexico [5]
A preliminary classification of the natural vegetation of Colorado [8]
Climax forest series of northern New Mexico and southern Colorado [23]
Forest habitat types south of the Mongolian Rim, Arizona and New Mexico [24]
Forest habitat types in the Apache, Gila, and part of the Cibola
National Forests, Arizona and New Mexico [32]
Plant association of Region Two: Potential plant communities of
Wyoming, South Dakota, Nebraska, Colorado, and Kansas [47]
Forest vegetation of the Gunnison and parts of the Uncompahgre National
Forests: a preliminary habitat type classification [52]
Forest and woodland habitat types (plant associations) of northern New
Mexico and northern Arizona [59]
The lodgepole pine zone in Colorado [66]
A forest habitat type classification of southern Arizona and its
relationship to forests of the Sierra Madre Occidental of Mexico [68]
Forested plant associations of the Okanogan National Forest [99]
Plant associates: Common associates of dwarf bilberry include
thimbleberry, northern twinflower, kinnikinnick (Arctostaphylos
uva-ursi), mountain snowberry (Symphoricarpos oreophilus), heartleaf
arnica (Arnica cordifolia), common juniper (Juniperus communis), black
twinberry (Lonicera involucrata), Rocky mountain maple (Acer glabrum),
serviceberry (Amelanchier alnifolia), and grouse whortleberry
[8,25,47,52,68]. Where dwarf bilberry and grouse whortleberry occur
together, dwarf bilberry typically occupies somewhat lower, more mesic
sites [106].
VALUE AND USE
SPECIES: Vaccinium myrtillus | Dwarf Bilberry
WOOD PRODUCTS VALUE :
NO-ENTRY
IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE :
Browse: A variety of small mammals consume the twigs, leaves, and bark
of dwarf bilberry [57,71]. Throughout most of Scandinavia, dwarf
bilberry is the primary winter food of the gray-sided vole
(Clethrionomys rufocanus) [57]. Browse appears to be of negligible
value to large ungulates.
Fruit: Berries of dwarf bilberry are eaten by many birds and mammals
[56] including the ring-necked pheasant, hares, grouse, partridges,
ptarmigans, and bears [35,74,81]. In Finland, these berries make up a
high percentage of brown bear diets during August. Coniferous forests
with a dwarf bilberry understory provide essential brown bear habitat
during late summer in parts of Scandinavia [74]. Dwarf bilberry was
presumably of similar importance to grizzly bears in North America prior
to their extirpation from the central and southern Rocky Mountains.
Vaccinium berries are readily eaten by the band-tailed pigeon, wild
turkey, gray catbird, ruffed, spruce, blue, and sharp-tailed grouse,
tanagers, bluebirds, thrushes, quails, and towhees [63,92,94]. The
white-footed mouse, gray fox, red fox, raccoon, pika, deer mouse, and
numerous species of chipmunks, ground squirrels, tree squirrels, and
skunks also feed on Vaccinium fruit [54,63,94].
PALATABILITY :
Dwarf bilberry browse is described as "worthless" for cattle but on
occasion is of fair palatability to domestic sheep [22]. Palatability
to big game species appears slight. Fruit of dwarf bilberry is highly
palatable to a wide variety of birds and mammals. Overall palatability
of dwarf bilberry has been rated as follows [26]:
CO UT WY
Cattle poor poor ----
Sheep fair fair ----
Horses poor poor ----
Pronghorn ---- poor poor
Elk ---- good fair
Mule deer ---- good good
White-tailed deer ---- ---- good
Small mammals good good good
Small nongame birds good good good
Upland game birds ---- good good
Waterfowl ---- poor poor
NUTRITIONAL VALUE :
Browse: Blueberry (Vaccinium spp.) foliage is relatively high in
carotene, manganese, and energy content [20,39,93]. Nutrient value of
dwarf bilberry browse varies according to weather conditions, site
characteristics such as soil type and elevation, plant part, and timber
treatment [18,57,86,100]. Nitrogen content depends in large part on
available soil nutrients, with total leaf nitrogen typically increasing
with elevation [57,100]. Selected nutrient value of dwarf bilberry
browse by timber treatment is as follows [18,86]:
subalpine forest - central Colorado -
(percent)
3 yrs 5 yrs
uncut clearcut uncut clearcut
crude protein 9.3 11.2 11.0 12.6
moisture 57.3 60.3 60.2 60.4
in vitro digest. 28.0 29.2 31.1 38.3
northwestern Montana -
(micrograms per g)
Ca Cu Fe K Mg Mn N Na P Zn
clearcut - burn
stem 6105 7.4 66 3895 1259 1059 6718 134 1232 53
leaves 8950 9.7 113 9480 3061 1410 19040 160 2296 25
control - unburned
stem 5100 -- 92 2880 752 1200 9100 119 943 39
leaves 8540 12.1 153 7460 1808 2770 25470 1721 1937 21
Fruit: Vaccinium berries are sweet and contain high concentrations of
both mono- and di-saccharides [88]. Berries are rich in vitamin C and
energy content but low in fats [45,77].
COVER VALUE :
Dwarf bilberry provides some cover for small birds and mammals. The
diverse canopy layers associated with subalpine fir/dwarf bilberry
forests of the Southwest reportedly serve as good habitat for deer, elk,
and many species of birds [32]. Cover value of dwarf bilberry has been
rated as follows [26]:
UT WY
Pronghorn poor poor
Elk poor poor
Mule deer poor poor
Small mammals good good
Small nongame birds fair good
Upland game birds fair fair
VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES :
The extensive rhizome network of dwarf bilberry can aid in preventing
soil erosion once plants become established [93]. Species within the
genus Vaccinium can be propagated from hardwood stem cuttings or from
seed [17]. Root cuttings of dwarf bilberry can be successfully
transplanted onto disturbed sites and mature plants can be transplanted
during the spring [9,33]. Vegetative propagation of dwarf bilberry has
been examined in detail [92]. Vaccinium seedlings grown in the
greenhouse can be transplanted onto favorable sites 6 to 7 weeks after
emergence. Seed collection and storage techniques have been well
documented [17].
OTHER USES AND VALUES :
Fruit of dwarf bilberry is juicy, edible, and has a "nutlike flavor"
[50]. Berries are eaten fresh or gathered for use in jams and jellies
[31,92]. Fruit may be used in pie filling [92]; however, collecting
enough of the small berries can be difficult [50]. Leaves of dwarf
bilberry have been used to make tea [50]. Both fruit and leaves are
reported to have some medicinal value [56]. Vaccinium berries were
traditionally an important food source for many native peoples. Fruit
of the dwarf bilberry was traditionally used by the Kootenai, Carriers,
and Shuswap in North America, and by many indigenous peoples throughout
northern Europe and Siberia [92].
Dwarf bilberry may have potential value for breeding commercial
fruit-producing strains [60], particularly those suited to upland
mineral soil [53]. Dwarf bilberry may also be useful in developing
cold-hardy cultivars for northern plantings [21]. It is tolerant of
cold winter temperatures, and some strains may be hardy to -70 degrees F
(-57 degrees C) [21].
MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
Berry production: Berry production in dwarf bilberry fluctuates
annually with weather conditions [31,56]. Spring frosts and summer
droughts can greatly decrease yields [31]. Production is typically good
in favorable, moist years, but during bad years no fruit is produced
over extensive areas [50]. Generally, fruit production is poor when
winter snow cover is less than 8 inches (20 cm) deep. Buds are
vulnerable to damage by cold winter temperatures. In some areas, flower
bud development may be greatly reduced when January temperatures have
reached -26 to -29 degrees F (-32 to -34 degrees C) [75].
The age of plant, canopy cover, stand age, and other site
characteristics can also influence berry production [56]. In some
areas, berry production may peak at stand ages of 20 to 70 years [20].
However, Kuchko [56] reports that in Finland, dwarf bilberry can bear
fruit for "some time after clearcutting," suggesting optimal fruit
production occurs during somewhat earlier seral stages. Very young
shoots often allocate more resources to vegetative growth than to fruit
production [71]. As branches age, growth often declines [71].
Livestock: Livestock trampling can compact the soil and reduce rhizome
sprouting and vegetative expansion of dwarf bilberry clones [7]. Stems
tend to be shorter where livestock numbers are high [95].
Chemical control: Bilberries (Vaccinium spp.) exhibit variable
susceptibility to herbicides such as 2,4-D, 2,4,5-T, glyphosate,
karbutilate, and picloram [12,104].
Timber harvest: Most species of Vaccinium are susceptible to
postlogging treatments which include heavy scarification [64]. This
appears to be true of dwarf bilberry as well. However, other types of
timber treatments may produce increases in cover. In central Colorado,
dwarf bilberry increased at all levels of tree thinning but declined
immediately after clearcutting [19]. Combined cover of dwarf bilberry
and grouse whortleberry was as follows after various types of timber
harvest [18,19]:
percent cover
before logging years after logging
1 2 3 4 5
control 32.4 34.0 36.4 31.0 30.7 35.7
clearcutting 17.2 12.6 18.3 18.8 14.7 22.4
percent cover
basal area before thinning years after thinning
(ft sq/acre) 1 2 3 4 5
control 15.9 15.5 16.9 17.9 16.5 17.0
120 18.8 11.5 17.5 21.4 23.1 26.2
80 12.6 5.3 7.4 10.6 10.5 16.7
40 14.4 3.3 5.9 7.9 9.6 10.5
Damage: Large clones may be broken up by frost, fire, or burrowing
mammals [38]. In the absence of a protective layer of snow, plants are
vulnerable to cold winter temperatures and may be killed by exposure to
temperatures of 3 degrees F (-19.5 degrees C) [38].
Silviculture: Dwarf bilberry frequently serves as a nurse crop for
Douglas-fir seedlings [78].
Wildlife considerations: Vaccinium berries are an extremely important
food source for bears. In many areas, bear-human conflicts are most
likely to occur during years of berry (Vaccinium spp.) crop failure
[64,83]. Both black and grizzly bears typically exploit areas with
dense concentrations of berries. The value of Vaccinium shrubfields as
grizzly bear habitat can be increased by permanent or at least seasonal
road closures, by coordinating timber harvest dates to have minimal
impact on habitat use patterns, and by considering the cumulative
effects of habitat modification across a broad area. In general, site
preparation should include minimizing soil compaction, using cooler
broadcast burns rather than hot burns, or by eliminating site
preparation entirely wherever possible. Grizzly use is favored where
hiding cover is retained by treating small, irregular patches instead of
large contiguous areas, and by leaving stringers of timber within larger
cuts [102].
BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
SPECIES: Vaccinium myrtillus | Dwarf Bilberry
GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS :
Dwarf bilberry is a slender-branched, somewhat spreading, dwarf
deciduous shrub which reaches 4 to 18 inches (10-18 cm) in height
[57,87,92,97,105]. Plants are typically shorter at higher elevations
[100]. This rhizomatous shrub generally forms open colonies [92].
Roots are fibrous and much branched, with maximum diameters of 0.06 to
0.08 inch (1.5-2.0 mm) [41]. Numerous fine adventitious roots form an
interconnected mat in the top 2 inches (5 cm) of peat [41].
Twigs are green or less commonly yellowish, glabrous or puberulent, and
sharply angled [43,50,92,97]. Stems often become reddish or
orange-tinged when exposed to full sunlight [87]. Branches tend to be
thicker and less numerous than the morphologically similar grouse
whortleberry [43], and dwarf bilberry lacks the unique broomlike
branching typical of grouse whortleberry [87]. Dwarf bilberry also has
larger leaves and flowers and often puberulent stems [98]. Stem
morphology has been examined in detail [69]. The maximum age of aerial
shoots is generally estimated at 15 years [92]. However, in parts of
Sweden, stem ages average 18 years [20].
Small, simple, alternate leaves are ovate to lanceolate or broadly
elliptic with serrate margins [50,92,98]. Leaves are acute to obtuse at
the apex and rounded to broadly cuneate at the base [97,98]. Leaves are
light green and 0.4 to 1.2 inches (1-3 cm) in length [43]. Dwarf
bilberry leaves turn red, yellow, or brown in autumn [95].
The pink, cream, or greenish-white flowers are borne singly in the axils
of new stems [73,92,98]. Flowers are small, waxy, and urceolate to
campanulate [43,50]. Fruit of dwarf bilberry is a spherical berry 0.2
to 0.3 inch (5-8 mm) in diameter [43,65]. Fruit color ranges from dark
red to bluish or purplish black [43]. Dwarf bilberry is single-fruited
[65]. Berries are generally not glaucous, although a glaucous bloom is
occasionally observed [73,92]. Berries contain many nutlets which
average approximately 0.04 inch (1 mm) in length [92,97].
RAUNKIAER LIFE FORM :
Phanerophyte
Geophyte
REGENERATION PROCESSES :
Dwarf bilberry can reproduce from seed or by vegetative means.
Vegetative regeneration: Forms of vegetative regeneration appear to be
of primary importance after fire [81] or other disturbance. However,
colonies increase laterally through rhizome expansion even in the
absence of disturbance. Annual radial increases average 2.8 inches (7
cm) [(2 to 4 inches) (5-10 cm)] per year [81,92].
Dwarf bilberry possesses an extensive, frequently branched network of
rhizomes averaging 0.12 to 0.24 inch (3-6 mm) in diameter [41]. The
total length of rhizomes occasionally exceeds 3.3 feet (1 m), but the
amount producing sprouts typically measures only 28 to 35 inches (70-90
cm) in length [7]. Rhizome depth ranges from 0.24 to 1.2 inches (6-30
mm) below the soil surface [41,90]. Sprouting ability declines with age
[7]. Although rhizomes of 23 to 28 years of age have been reported
[92], few rhizomes older than 15 years produce aerial shoots with new
growth [7]. The extensive rhizome network allows for rapid regeneration
after disturbance [81]. Where portions of the stem base survive,
regeneration through surviving aboveground axillary buds also occurs
[62].
Seed: Dwarf bilberry fruit contains an average of 18 to 20 viable seeds
per berry with an average of 18 imperfectly-formed seeds [81,91]. Seeds
weigh an average of 25 mg per 100 seeds [91]. Seed production generally
begins at age three [71] and is subject to considerable annual
variation. [see Management Considerations - Berry Production]. Bees
are the primary pollinators [79].
Germination: Germination averages 35 to 46 percent following various
types of pretreatment. Germination of seed exposed to low temperatures
(32 degrees F [0 degrees C]) for 3 weeks averaged 41 to 64 percent [81].
Good germination has been reported after seeds were exposed to 14 hours
of light at 82 degrees F (28 degrees C) followed by 10 hours of darkness
at 55 degrees F (13 degrees C) [91]. Fresh seed germinated well under a
similar regime, or when exposed to alternating periods at 71 degrees F
(22 degrees C) and 41 degrees F (5 degrees C) [91]. Heat treatments
were found to produce some germination although the amount was irregular
[62]. The effect of temperature on germination was as follows [62]:
effect of heat treatment on seed germination
total germination after 24 weeks - percent -
50 C 75 C 100 C
control 0 - -
30 sec 14 8 20
1 min 0 2 6
2 min 16 0 2
effect of pretreatment on imbibed seeds after
21 weeks at 0 degrees C -
treatment percent germination
control 64
cold only 6
cold + 50 C for 1 minute 10
cold + 50 C for 2 minutes 14
cold + 50 C for 3 minutes 16
cold + 100 C for 1 minute 8
cold + 100 C for 2 minutes 4
cold + 100 C for 3 minutes 2
Seedbanking: Evidence for seedbanking in dwarf bilberry appears
contradictory. Some researchers have observed very few seeds in the
soil despite high coverage at the site and doubt if seed banking is an
important regenerative strategy in this species [89]. Most Vacciniums
are characterized by seed of relatively short viability which is readily
damaged by heat [64]. However, others emphasize the importance of seed
banking in dwarf bilberry [29,35,92]. Soil samples in Wales, for
example, have yielded 28 buried viable seeds per square foot (300 per/sq
m) [92]. In a Swedish forest, seeds were found in the lower humus layer
of 120-year-old stands as well as in the moss-litter layer of 50- and
169-year-old stands, suggesting a "continuous input of seeds" [35].
Seedlings were produced as follows from 25 buried soil cores, each of
which was 4 inches (100 mm) in diameter [35]:
stand age cover frequency seedlings produced
(years) (%) (%) (#)
16 5 80 22
29 35 100 10
50 58 100 93
120 56 100 49
169 60 100 95
In Sweden, single buried berries occasionally produced clusters of up to
20 seedlings [35]. Longevity of dwarf bilberry seed has not been
documented, although Granstrom [35] reports that many buried seeds may
be "quite old."
Seed dispersal: Seeds of dwarf bilberry are widely dispersed by many
birds and mammals [35,81]. In laboratory tests, seedlings have
germinated from pellets of various lagomorphs [35].
Seedling establishment: In many locations, including parts of northern
Europe, seedlings are rarely observed [81,90]. Seedlings of Vacciniums
are also rare in North America [92, (P. Stickney, pers. comm. 1990)].
However, seedling establishment of dwarf bilberry appears variable.
Establishment is reportedly poor on burned sites, on scarified
clearcuts, and in mature closed canopy forests [35]. However, Vander
Kloet [92] reports that on favorable sites in Sweden, seedlings may
number 25 per square foot (270 per square meter). Initial development
of seedlings is very slow [81].
SITE CHARACTERISTICS :
Dwarf bilberry grows in open woods, on hillsides, high ridges, hummocky
seepage slopes, and moraines [4,49,92]. In mountains of the Southwest,
it occurs on all slopes and aspects at higher elevations [32].
Climate: Upland spruce-fir sites occupied by dwarf bilberry are often
cold and steep [47]. On many sites, snow commonly persists until late
spring [32].
Soils: Most Vacciniums require acidic soils and can grow on infertile
sites which have relatively small amounts of many essential elements
[53]. Dwarf bilberry requires little potassium and can grow well where
ammonium is the only source of nitrogen [46]. In Scandinavia, dwarf
bilberry appears to be most abundant on sites of intermediate fertility
[20]. It is commonly associated with raw humus in parts of northeastern
Scotland and Scandinavia [107,108]. It commonly grows on shallow, rocky
soils in the southwestern United States [101]. Growth is generally
marginal on poorly aerated soil [53].
Elevation: Dwarf bilberry typically grows at middle to high elevations.
Elevational range by geographic location is as follows
[26,49,100,85,92,98]:
from 7,000 to 12,000 feet (2,134-3,660 m ) in the Southwest
8,000 to 11,000 feet (2,438-3,355 m) in AZ
7,500 to 13,000 feet (2,286-3,965 m) in CO
4,300 to 8,000 feet (1,311-2,438 m) in MT
9,500 to 11,000 feet (2,896-3,965 m) in UT
8,500 to 8,500 feet (2,591-2,591 m) in WY
656 to 3,800 feet (200-1,150 m) in Britain
> 5,250 feet (1,600 m) in the Cascades and Rocky Mtns.
3,000 to 5,000 feet (914-1,524 m) east of the Cascades
SUCCESSIONAL STATUS :
Dwarf bilberry occurs as a climax dominant in many high elevation
spruce-fir forests of western North America [5,25,84]. In high
elevation Engelmann spruce-subalpine fir and lodgepole pine forests of
Colorado, it assumes prominence after the first postfire century,
following the decline of rose (Rosa spp.), grouse whortleberry, and
kinnikinnick. During later stages, it commonly assumes dominance with
cliffbush (Jamesia americana) and common juniper (Juniperus communis).
Occurrence of dwarf bilberry by stand age has been documented as follows
in Colorado [16]:
spruce - fir
stand age (years)
1 2 8 8 18 74 200 280 290 300 400
density (avg. #
stems/plot) - - 66.6 45.0 - 171.0 151.5 79.2 96.3 132.8 136.8
frequency (%) - - 80 40 100 100 60 70 100 80
lodgepole pine
stand age (years)
8 18 18 85 108 115 190 248 251 257
density (avg. #
stems/plot) 68.4 66.6 10.8 43.2 100.5 - 66.6 21.6 38.8 97.8
frequency (%) 40 80 20 80 100 - 80 21.6 60 100
In southern Finland, dwarf bilberry becomes abundant during secondary
succession after species such as fireweed (Epilobium angustifolium) have
flourished and declined [96].
In some locations, this shrub may become important in early seral
communities. In parts of Britain, dwarf bilberry and lingonberry
commonly codominate heather communities soon after fire but then decline
in later successional stages [81]. Natural dieback of 12-year-old
bilberry stands has been reported [7].
SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT :
Phenological development of dwarf bilberry varies with climate,
latitude, and longitude [95]. New leafy shoots generally develop in
March or April [81]. In a Finnish study, annual vegetative growth began
as buds began to swell on May 13 [95]. By June 1, leaf buds had
completely opened and vegetative growth continued until early to
mid-June. Leaves were colored or shed by October 19 [95]. The active
growth period lasted approximately 5 months. Development tends to be
delayed at higher elevations [81].
Seed set and berry formation begins two to four weeks after pollination
[81]. Berry ripening is completed about 50 days after flowering [95].
Phenological development was documented as follows in a Finnish study
[95]:
average # of days (since Jan. 1)
beginning of veg. dev. 136.3
leaf buds begin to open 147.6
leaf buds completely open 152.3
start of budding 150.6
opening of flowers 153.4
cessation of growth 176.3
beginning of green berry phase 170.8
berries ripening 202.1
autumn color begins 222.6
autumn color ends 292.2
Generalized seasonal development by geographic location is as follows
[49,73,95,97]:
location flowering fruiting
n ID May-August --
AZ June-July --
Southwest May July
s Finland mid-May --
n Finland early June --
FIRE ECOLOGY
SPECIES: Vaccinium myrtillus | Dwarf Bilberry
FIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS :
Dwarf bilberry appears well adapted to a regime of fairly frequent
fires. In parts of Britain and presumably elsewhere, it commonly
persists on sites burned at "periodic" intervals [7,62]. However, this
shrub also thrives under longer fire intervals. In parts of the central
and southern Rocky Mountains, it assumes dominance later than the first
century after fire [16]. Relatively long fire intervals have also been
reported in dwarf bilberry forests of Sweden, where mean fire
frequencies are estimated at approximately 91 years [35].
Dwarf bilberry is generally capable of sprouting from an extended
network of underground rhizomes after aboveground vegetation is
destroyed by fire. Regeneration through seed is reportedly poor on
burned, previously forested sites [35]. Although some researchers
consider dwarf bilberry to be a seedbanker [29,35], seedlings are
apparently rare [81]. Some seed may be carried to burned sites by birds
and mammals [35,81].
POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY :
Small shrub, adventitious-bud root crown
Rhizomatous shrub, rhizome in soil
Initial-offsite colonizer (off-site, initial community)
FIRE EFFECTS
SPECIES: Vaccinium myrtillus | Dwarf Bilberry
IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT :
Portions of stem bases occasionally survive light fires. Underground
regenerative structures of dwarf bilberry generally survive all but
extremely hot fires [90]. Rhizomes, which occur at depths of 0.24 to
1.2 inches (6-30 mm) [41,90], can survive fires in which soil surface
temperatures reach 820 degrees F (438 degrees C) [90]. However,
rhizomes are sometimes destroyed on severely burned sites [90].
Seeds of most Vacciniums are of short viability and are readily killed
by heat [64].
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT :
NO-ENTRY
PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE :
Vegetative response: Dwarf bilberry commonly sprouts from underground
rhizomes or, when damage is less severe, from axillary buds located at
the stem base [62,90]. Sprouting ability appears closely related to
fire intensity and severity [62]. Dwarf bilberry generally sprouts
following all but hot fires [90]. A Colorado study suggests that
although postfire canopy cover is typically high on lightly burned
sites, this shrub may be virtually eliminated on severely burned areas
[109]. Postfire response is generally best in protected microsites or
on lightly burned areas [78,90].
Clonal vigor is often enhanced by fire. Old, large, decadent clones are
often broken up by fire [38]. Surviving portions serve as isolated
centers of regeneration which give rise to the development of vigorous
daughter clones [81].
Seed: Seedlings are rarely observed on burned sites [90]. Although
some researchers consider dwarf bilberry to be a seed banker, adequate
documentation is lacking [See Regeneration]. Birds and mammals may
carry some seed to burned sites.
Postfire response: Vegetative expansion of dwarf bilberry may be rapid
after fire, particularly where competition is light [81]. Sprouting may
be evident within a few months after fires in which surface soil
temperatures reached as high as 820 degrees F (438 degrees C). In
forests of northern Sweden, preburn cover can be reached within a few
years. However, where underground rhizomes are destroyed by fire,
recovery may take a "very long time" [90]. On burned and clearcut old
growth forests of west-central Montana, dwarf bilberry had not attained
preburned biomass within 10 to 14 years after disturbance [78].
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE :
Fire temperature: The effect of temperature on the sprouting ability of
dwarf bilberry in Scotland was documented as follows after 17 months of
regrowth [62]:
aboveground temperatures
(degrees C for 2 minutes)
400 600 800
mean # sprouts/plant 180 51 22
mean % cover 133 68 16
mean height (cm) 22 17 14
mean biomass (g) 85 30 3
FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
Wildlife: Evidence suggests that fire suppression may be having an
adverse impact on bear habitat in some areas [102,110]. Once-productive
berry fields are being invaded by conifers. Since plants beneath a
forest canopy generally produce few berries, fruit production has been
steadily declining in many areas [65]. Berry fields can be treated with
fire if maintenance or enhancement of berry crops is a prime management
objective. Logging treatments which include severe soil scarification
or slash burns may also reduce berry production. Even where timber
harvest favors berry production, lack of cover in early years can limit
bear use. Wildfires often create diverse habitat mosaics which
incorporate elements of hiding cover and favor bear use [102].
Prescribed fire: Flower buds tend to be more numerous on new shoots,
and periodic removal of old shoots can increase flower production in
Vacciniums. Prescribed fire has long been used to rejuvenate commercial
low sweet blueberry (V. angustifolium) fields and to increase overall
fruit production [64]. Prescribed fires, particularly those conducted
during the spring when soil moisture is high, may increase berry
production for wildlife species. Little research has been conducted on
dwarf bilberry, although the use of prescribed fire has been evaluated
with respect to blue and globe huckleberries [64,65] [see the VACMEM
write-up].
Fuels: A dwarf bilberry understory partially supports fine fuels such
as needle litter and small twigs and produces a more optimally aerated
fuel bed. Estimated fuel loading of dwarf bilberry has been established
for lodgepole pine forests of the southern Rocky Mountains [2].
Timber harvest: In spruce-fir forests of the southern Rocky Mountains
of New Mexico, forest regeneration after fire may be most rapid in cover
types dominated by Vacciniums such as dwarf bilberry [27].
FIRE CASE STUDIES
SPECIES: Vaccinium myrtillus | Dwarf Bilberry
CASE NAME :
Table Mountain burn, eastern Washington
REFERENCE :
Woodard, P. M. 1977 [111]
SEASON/SEVERITY CLASSIFICATION :
September 30, 1975 - severity not reported.
STUDY LOCATION :
The study site is located in Kittitas County, Washington on the east
side of the Cascades, approximately midway between Ellensburg and
Wenatchee.
PREFIRE VEGETATIVE COMMUNITY :
Two areas, both of which occur in the subalpine fir zone, were included
in the study. Both sites were representative of the Engelmann spruce
(Picea engelmannii)-subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa)-elk sedge (Carex
geyerii) habitat type as delineated by Wirsing (1973). The lodgepole
pine thicket site was described as a "well-developed,
well-differentiated" stand. All layers of the overstory were well
stocked with lodgepole pine, the dominant overstory species. Subalpine
fir and Engelmann spruce codominated the intermediate crown class.
Common understory dominants included elk sedge (Carex geyerii),
heartleaf arnica (Arnica cordifolia), broadleaf arnica (Arnica
latifolia), Hood sedge (Carex hoodii), bigleaf lupine (Lupinus
polyphyllus), and dwarf bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus).
The snag site consisted of decadent lodgepole. Many snags were present
in the overstory with living lodgepole pine, subalpine fir, and
Engelmann spruce. Subalpine fir and Engelmann spruce occurred as
overstory codominants although only subalpine fir was regenerating
beneath the closed canopy. Subalpine fir, elk sedge, broadleaf arnica
(Arnica latifolia), pinegrass (Calamagrostis rubescens), and the mosses
Rhacomitrium canescens var. ericoides and Polytrichum commune were
common understory dominants.
Subplots at both sites were thinned to 20 percent of the original crown
cover prior to the burn.
TARGET SPECIES PHENOLOGICAL STATE :
not reported
SITE DESCRIPTION :
elevation - 5,600 to 5,800 feet (1,706-1,761 m)
slope - 0 to 20 percent
aspect - south to west, primarily southwest
topography - much relief
soils -
parent material - basalt residuum
bedrock composition - basalt, andesite, rhyolite
soil fertility -
lodgepole pine thicket - low
snag - moderate
climate -
winters - cold and wet
summers - cool and dry
annual precipitation - 31.5 to 63 inches (80-160 cm)
70 percent of annual precipitation occurs as snow
between October and March
FIRE DESCRIPTION :
time of fire - 1400 to 1600 hours
ambient air temperature - 61 to 63 degrees F (16-17 degrees C)
relative humidity - 19 to 21 percent
wind direction - south to southwest, erratic
wind speed - calm, gusts to 16 miles per hour (26 km/hour)
days since rain - 15
fuel moisture (fine) - 13.1 percent
estimated flame heights - 125 to 140 feet (38-42 m)
fire description - A back fire was ignited on the north side
with 9 foot (3 m) strips, then a strip head fire was
applied to the remainder of area at 49 foot intervals.
Hand-held drip torches containing a 50/50
diesel oil-gasoline mixture were used to ignite the
fire.
mean duff reductions -
lodgepole pine thicket - from 60 tonnes/ha to
4 tonnes/ha
snag - from 74 tonnes/ha to 49 tonnes/ha
FIRE EFFECTS ON TARGET SPECIES :
Comparative frequency and cover of dwarf bilberry were documented as
follows:
Lodgepole pine thicket -
rel. frequency rel. cover
before tmt. 1 yr. after before tmt. 1 yr. after
burned .46 .38 .013 .012
control .75 1.00 .078 .070
thinned .20 .20 .019 .002
Snag -
rel. frequency rel. cover
before tmt. 1 yr. after before tmt. 1 yr. after
burned .12 .06 .001 .000
control .25 .50 .009 .004
thinned .20 .20 .001 .013
Dwarf bilberry regenerated from rhizomes after fire, but in general,
postfire response was poor.
FIRE MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS :
Crown fires can kill or drastically reduce sprouters such as dwarf
bilberry.
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Index
Related categories for Species: Vaccinium myrtillus
| Dwarf Bilberry
|
 |
