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Wildlife, Animals, and Plants
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Introductory
SPECIES: Robinia pseudoacacia | Black Locust
ABBREVIATION :
ROBPSE
SYNONYMS :
NO-ENTRY
SCS PLANT CODE :
ROPS
COMMON NAMES :
black locust
false acacia
yellow locust
white locust
green locust
post locust
shipmast locust
locust
TAXONOMY :
The currently accepted scientific name for black locust is Robinia
pseudoacacia L. [45,54]. There are no natural subspecies or forms, but
many cultivars are available [45]. Named varieties are as follows
[48,54]:
Robinia pseudoacacia var. pseudoacacia
Robinia pseudoacacia var. rectissima (L.) Raber
Black locust hybridizes with Kelsey locust (Robinia kelseyi), New Mexico
locust (R. neomexicana), clammy locust (R. viscosa), and bristly locust
(R. hispida) [45].
LIFE FORM :
Tree
FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS :
No special status
OTHER STATUS :
NO-ENTRY
COMPILED BY AND DATE :
Janet Sullivan, November 1993
LAST REVISED BY AND DATE :
NO-ENTRY
AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION :
Sullivan, Janet. 1993. Robinia pseudoacacia. In: Remainder of Citation
DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
SPECIES: Robinia pseudoacacia | Black Locust
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION :
The original natural range of black locust is in two sections: 1) the
central Appalachian Mountains from central Pennsylvania and southern
Ohio south to northeastern Alabama, northern Georgia, and northwestern
South Carolina, and 2) the Ozark Plateau of southern Missouri, northern
Arkansas, northeastern Oklahoma, and the Oachita Mountains of central
Arkansas and southeastern Oklahoma. Outlying populations thought to be
part of the original natural range occur in southern Indiana, Illinois,
Kentucky, Alabama, and Georgia [45].
Black locust has been successfully planted in almost every state [24].
Naturalized populations occur throughout the United States, southern
Canada, Europe, and Asia [45].
ECOSYSTEMS :
FRES10 White - red - jack pine
FRES12 Longleaf - slash pine
FRES13 Loblolly - shortleaf pine
FRES14 Oak - pine
FRES15 Oak - hickory
FRES16 Oak - gum - cypress
FRES17 Elm - ash - cottonwood
FRES18 Maple - beech - birch
FRES21 Ponderosa pine
FRES27 Redwood
FRES28 Western hardwoods
FRES29 Sagebrush
FRES30 Desert shrub
FRES34 Chaparral - mountain shrub
FRES35 Pinyon - juniper
FRES36 Mountain grasslands
FRES38 Plains grasslands
FRES39 Prairie
FRES40 Desert grasslands
STATES :
AL AZ AR CA CO CT DE FL GA HI
ID IL IN IA KS KY LA ME MD MA
MI MN MS MO MT NE NV NH NJ NM
NY NC ND OH OK OR PA RI SC SD
TN TX UT VT VA WA WV WI WY AB
BC MB NB NF NT NS ON PE PQ SK
YT
ADMINISTRATIVE UNITS :
ACAD ALPO ANTI ARCH ASIS BISO
BUFF CACO CAHA CATO CHCH COLO
CUGA CUVA DEVA DEWA EFMO FIIS
FODO GATE GWCA GWMP GRSM INDU
JOFL LAME MACA MANA MORR NATR
NERI NOCA OBRI OZAR PRWI REDW
RICH ROCR SARA SHEN SHIL SLBE
TICA VAFO WHIS ZION
BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS :
1 Northern Pacific Border
2 Cascade Mountains
3 Southern Pacific Border
4 Sierra Mountains
5 Columbia Plateau
6 Upper Basin and Range
7 Lower Basin and Range
8 Northern Rocky Mountains
9 Middle Rocky Mountains
10 Wyoming Basin
11 Southern Rocky Mountains
12 Colorado Plateau
13 Rocky Mountain Piedmont
14 Great Plains
15 Black Hills Uplift
16 Upper Missouri Basin and Broken Lands
KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS :
K011 Western ponderosa forest
K016 Eastern ponderosa forest
K017 Black Hills pine forest
K023 Juniper - pinyon woodland
K037 Mountain-mahogany - oak scrub
K038 Great Basin sagebrush
K040 Saltbush - greasewood
K051 Wheatgrass - bluegrass
K055 Sagebrush steppe
K057 Galleta - three-awn shrubsteppe
K065 Grama - buffalograss
K070 Sandsage - bluestem prairie
K098 Northern floodplain forest
K099 Maple - basswood forest
K100 Oak - hickory forest
K102 Beech - maple forest
K103 Mixed mesophytic forest
K104 Appalachian oak forest
K106 Northern hardwoods
K111 Oak - hickory - pine forest
K112 Southern mixed forest
SAF COVER TYPES :
26 Sugar maple - basswood
27 Sugar maple
44 Chestnut oak
46 Eastern redcedar
50 Black locust
52 White oak - black oak - northern red oak
53 White oak
55 Northern red oak
57 Yellow-poplar
59 Yellow-poplar - white oak - northern red oak
60 Beech - sugar maple
62 Silver maple - American elm
108 Red maple
110 Black oak
237 Interior ponderosa pine
239 Pinyon - juniper
245 Pacific ponderosa pine
SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES :
NO-ENTRY
HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES :
Black locust forms pure stands only on disturbed soils where there is no
competing overstory vegetation. On good sites, single trees or small
groups may persist and grow large enough to form part of the mature
canopy [45]. Black locust is found in the southeastern United States
largely within oak (Quercus spp.)-hickory (Carya spp.) forests. It also
occurs in naturalized populations in a wide range of types including
blue ash (Fraxinus quadrangulata) savannas in the inner bluegrass region
of Kentucky [13].
Common tree associates in oak-hickory forest include black cherry
(Prunus serotina), white ash (Fraxinus americana), sweet birch (Betula
lenta), cucumbertree (Magnolia acuminata), black walnut (Juglans nigra),
sourwood (Oxydendron arboreum), sassafras (Sassafras albidum), and
flowering dogwood (Cornus florida). Associates on dry slopes include
black gum (Nyssa sylvatica) and scarlet oak (Quercus coccinea).
Associates in prairie-woodland transition zones of the Midwest include
blackjack oak (Q. marilandica) and black hickory (C. texana)
[1,5,45,55,64,85].
Outside of its native range, black locust often naturalizes in riparian
habitats or floodplains [6,44,64].
VALUE AND USE
SPECIES: Robinia pseudoacacia | Black Locust
WOOD PRODUCTS VALUE :
Black locust wood is close-grained,strong, hard, heavy, and durable
[12,45]. Past and present uses of black locust wood include fenceposts,
fuelwood, mine timbers, poles, railroad ties, insulator pins, tool
handles, boxes, wooden novelties, and pulp [45]. Black locust is not an
important commercial timber species in the United States, largely
because of its poor growth form and frequent locust borer infestations
[45]. In Europe, however, black locust products include paneling and
construction boards in addition to uses already mentioned [50]. Carey
and Gill [18] rated black locust as excellent (their highest rating) for
firewood. Black locust has the highest heat equivalent of any North
American woody species. One cord of black locust wood (at 20 percent
moisture) yields as much heat as approximately 1.12 tons of anthracite
coal [9,20].
IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE :
In Illinois black locust provides excellent food and cover for northern
bobwhites where it invades old fields or burned sites [32]. Despite its
hard wood, black locust is susceptible to insects and rots, and is
therefore a good nest-cavity tree, particularly for woodpeckers [45].
Black locust trees have a disproportionate number of cavities (with
nests) in an oak-hickory forest in West Virginia. Most of the black
locust trees in this forest are suppressed, showing poor vigor, or dead
[17]. In Kentucky, fledged eastern screech owls roost on black locust
branches during the summer at a frequency higher than expected based on
availability. Screech owls are rarely found in cavities in the summer,
but fall and winter use of cavities is frequent [7]. Black locust is
more prone to snag formation than is red maple (Acer rubrum), American
beech (Fagus grandifolia), or red oaks (Quercus, subgenus
Erythrobalanus) [58].
Carey and Gill [18] rated black locust as only fair (their lowest
rating) in browse value for all species of wildlife. However, young
growth is browsed by white-tailed deer and cattle [15]. In Georgia,
black locust is rated as choice browse for white-tailed deer [41].
Rabbits eat winter twigs of black locust [12].
Young growth is nutritious livestock forage, although all parts of the
plant contain substances toxic to livestock [15]. Horses are more
sensitive to the toxic substances than are other livestock species
[15,76]. Black locust poisoning is rarely fatal [52], and small amounts
of black locust materials are apparently acceptable. Feeds containing
up to 20 percent black locust meal have been used for poultry, rabbits,
and ruminants [15]. In Europe, black locust is planted and mowed as
livestock forage [50].
Black locust seeds are eaten by northern bobwhites and other game birds
and squirrels, but do not constitute an important food source [45]. The
flowers are a source of nectar for honeybees and hummingbirds [31].
PALATABILITY :
Palatability ratings of black locust in Utah are fair for cattle and
horses and poor for sheep [29].
NUTRITIONAL VALUE :
Black locust is rated fair in energy value and poor in protein value
[29]. However, black locust has relatively high leaf nitrogen levels
[10]. It is planted in Europe as a nutritious livestock forage,
rivaling alfalfa in nutritional value [50].
COVER VALUE :
Cover value of black locust in Utah is fair for elk, mule deer, and
upland gamebirds, poor for pronghorn and waterfowl, and good for small
nongame birds and small mammals [29].
VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES :
Natural revegetation of mined sites in southwestern Virginia and
northeastern Tennessee includes black locust, usually as root sprouts
from adjacent forests [65]. Volunteer black locusts can modify sites to
favor forest reestablishment [78]. Black locust vegetatively colonizes
mined sites that have been reclaimed to grassland [40].
Black locust was the most frequently and widely used tree for mine soil
plantings in the United States as of 1981 [79]. It is also planted in
some areas of Ontario, Canada [83]. Black locust is planted on mine
spoils to ameliorate poor soil conditions and to stabilize mine soils
and/or badly eroded or gullied land [45,65,72]. It is adapted to a wide
range of minesoil types [79]. Its habit of sprouting has been a cause
of concern where its long term occupation of a site is undesirable [78].
Surface-mined lands that are otherwise unproductive may produce good
economic returns if planted for short-rotation, woody biomass fuels
[9,20]. Black locust may be productive for this purpose, since it
exhibits rapid early growth, and sprouts after cutting [9]. Biomass
yields were measured for black locust for various planting spacings
[37].
OTHER USES AND VALUES :
Black locust is planted in shelterbelts, as an ornamental, for nectar
production for honey, and for fuel [31,50].
Black locust flowers have been used to make tea [76]. Tonic, purgative,
and emetic properties have been reported for the inner bark and roots
[24].
MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
The popularity of black locust for reforestation and revegetation of
mined lands in the United States is waning, primarily because of its
weedy habit and because of locust borer infestations. Herbaceous
perennials are more often selected for reclamation [78]. It is still
widely planted, however, and as of 1984 there were over one million
hectares of black locust plantations worldwide [10].
Black locust increases soil nitrogen through relatively high rates of
nitrogen fixation and accretion [39,63]. Acetylene reduction rates
(indicating nitrogen fixation) have been determined for nodulated black
locust roots [59]. A heavy litter layer is created early in stand
development. The litter is subject to rapid decomposition, improving
soil structure and fertility [3].
Sapling stands of black locust (with other species) can grow out of
reach of white-tailed deer in as little as 10 years, reducing available
browse. Browse can be increased by intensive silvicultural cleaning
(mechanical removal of aboveground portions of nondesirable stems),
which encourages black locust sprout formation [27].
Studies on the effects of interplanting black locust with other
hardwoods [34,71] or conifers [35,49] have reported improved growth of
the interplanted species. Black locust-conifer interplantings show
greater success when conifer are planted from 5 to 8 years prior to
black locust [49]. Prior occupation of a site by black locust is
beneficial to planted hardwoods [19]. Decadent (due to locust borer
infestation) black locust stands (12 to 15 years old) were underplanted
with black walnut and yellow-poplar. When the black locust trees died
out, the underplanted trees were left in good condition [78]. This use
as a nurse tree is not without drawbacks; black locust's thorny branches
can cause leader and bark damage to planted stems. It is therefore
recommended that black locust make up no more than 25 percent of a
hardwood mixture [79].
Black locust can be hydroseeded with fertilizer and mulch. This
treatment results in dense stands that provide rapid and fairly complete
site protection and stabilization [84]. On acidic mined sites, black
locust performance is improved by additions of lime to increase soil pH
[43]. Black locust plantings can be inoculated with Rhizobium bacteria
specific to black locust for improved performance [16]. Black locust
plantation failures have been attributed to poor site conditions,
including eroded, compacted, or clayey soils, low soil fertility, and
locust borer infestations [45]. Black locust planted on poor soils
(such as mine spoils) is often subject to locust borer infestations that
severely affect form and vigor [10,78]. Seedlings show positive
response to fertilizer [78].
Prairie remnants along railroad rights-of-way in Wisconsin are
threatened by black locust invasion [42].
Dense thickets of black locust root sprouts are sometimes produced after
clearcuts [45,55] or open shelterwood cuts [38] in stands previously
occupied by even minor amounts of black locust. Black locust can be a
serious competitor on these sites for many years [55]. Black locust is
not detrimental when sprouts are scattered or in small clumps [85]. In
addition, its short lifespan, coupled with its nitrogen-fixing
character, may facilitate forest growth later in succession [10].
Control: Hill prairie remnants in Illinois that were being invaded by
black locust were treated (and retreated where necessary) with 2,4-D
[51]. Bovey [11] lists 2,4,5-T as effective against black locust.
Other herbicides at least partially effective against black locust
include triclopyr [60,61], picloram [66], and glyphosate [81]. [61].
Herbicide treatments do not always control root sprouting [55]. Black
locust root sprouting can be prevented with auxin application [73]. Oak
seedling stands that are in danger of being overtopped by black locust
are improved by silvicultural cleaning [22].
Diseases: Black locust is susceptible to heart-rot fungi, witch-broom
virus, root rots, and Nectria fungi [45].
Insects: The major pest of black locust is the locust borer, which
causes severe damage to form, wood quality and overall vigor in many
plantations. Older trees that are already low in vigor are particularly
susceptible to locust borer infestation [20,45]. Other insect pests
include locust leafminers and locust twig borers [45]. A summary of
damaging agents listed by type and by black locust size class attacked
is available [2].
Other silvicultural concerns: Black locust is subject to clipping by
rabbits, and deer browsing is sometimes severe in Los Angeles County,
California [69].
BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
SPECIES: Robinia pseudoacacia | Black Locust
GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS :
Black locust is a medium-sized, native, deciduous tree [45]. Mature
height ranges from 40 to 60 feet (12-18 m), and 12 to 30 inches (30-76
cm) d.b.h. On better sites, maximum height may be 100 feet (30 m) [45].
The bark is thick (1 to 1.5 inches [2.5-4 cm] and deeply furrowed
[24,31]. Open grown trees have short boles, branching at 10 to 15 feet
(3-5 m) above the ground. On good sites, however, black locust trees
with longer, clear, straight trunks may be produced. The roots of black
locust are usually shallow and wide spreading, but deep roots of up to
26 feet (8 m) or more can also be produced, especially on xeric sites
[14]. Radial root spread is usually 1 to 1.5 times tree height [45].
The leaves fold and droop with cloud cover or at evening [24]. The
paired stipules at the base of each leaf develop into persistent woody
spines [31]. The inflorescence is a large, pendant raceme [45]. The
fruit is a flattened legume 2 to 4 inches (5-10 cm) long. The fruit
opens while still on the tree [45].
Black locust grows rapidly, reaching mature heights in 20 to 40 years
[86]. It is short-lived; decadence may begin at 40 years of age [75],
and it rarely lives over 100 years [24].
RAUNKIAER LIFE FORM :
Phanerophyte
REGENERATION PROCESSES :
Sexual reproduction: Black locust reaches sexual maturity at
approximately 6 years of age. The best seed production occurs between
15 and 40 years of age. Seed production continues until about age 60.
Good seed crops are produced every 1 to 2 years [45]. Seeds are hard
and require scarification for germination to take place [75]. Seedlings
established on good sites free of competition show rapid early growth
[45].
Vegetative reproduction: Black locust produces root and stump sprouts.
Sprout production is stimulated by top damage. Root suckers are usually
more important to reproduction than are seedlings. Root suckers first
appear when stems are 4 or 5 years old [45]. Sprouting is an important
mechanism for colonizing areas that have herbaceous plant cover but no
woody canopy. Grasses form a sod that does not allow black locust
seedling establishment, but black locust root sprouts are able to
colonize these areas [40].
SITE CHARACTERISTICS :
Black locust can grow on a wide range of sites, but grows best on rich,
moist, limestone-derived soils [45]. It does not do well on heavy or
poorly drained soils [46], although it appears to be tolerant of some
flooding. In the Northeast, it is found on floodplain sites with a 40
to 100 percent probability of flooding in any given year [64].
Acceptable soil pH ranges from 4.6 to 8.2 [45]. Vogel [79] reported the
lower pH limit for black locust growth as 4.0. In the Appalachians,
black locust grows best on moist eastern slopes below 3,400 feet (1,040
m). In the Great Smokey Mountains, black locust occurs up to 5,300 feet
(1,620 m) elevation [45].
SUCCESSIONAL STATUS :
Facultative seral species
Black locust is intolerant of shade [5]. It is a pioneer on old fields
within and outside of its original range [68]. It is often a prominent
member of postclearcut communities if it occurred in the pretreatment
community [5]. Black locust sprouts quickly from roots and stumps and
grows more rapidly than other tree species for the first 10 to 20
postdisturbance years [10]. In southwestern Ohio black locust is a
dominant member of 40-year-old oldfield stands that include white ash
(Fraxinus americana), American elm, black cherry (Prunus serotina),
honeylocust (Gleditsia triacanthos), and other species. In the same
area, black locust is a minor canopy member of 60-year-old oldfield
stands dominated by sugar maple (Acer saccharum), white oak (Quercus
alba), northern red oak (Q. rubra), American elm (Ulmus americana), and
other species [28]. Black locust colonizes canopy openings by root
sprouts [10]. It is not usually found in old-growth forests; its
presence in mature forests usually indicates disturbance [56].
Black locust is sometimes present in self-sustaining Table Mountain pine
(Pinus pungens) populations in Virginia. Usually a fire-maintained
type, Table Mountain pine is apparently climax on steep, dry slopes.
The presence of black locust in these stands is probably due to
gap-phase recruitment, indicated by the uneven distribution of black
locust age-classes [82].
As a nitrogen fixing species, black locust can achieve early dominance
on open sites where nitrogen is limiting to other species. As soil
nitrogen levels rise, however, other plants can replace black locust.
Other factors in black locust replacement include its short lifespan and
lack of reproduction under closed canopies [10,46].
SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT :
Black locust flowers from April to June. Fruits ripen from July to
November. Seeds are released from the persistent fruits until the
following spring [86].
FIRE ECOLOGY
SPECIES: Robinia pseudoacacia | Black Locust
FIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS :
Black locust sprouts rapidly from the roots and/or bole after top-kill
by fire [32,69]. Black locust vegetatively invades burned sites if it
is present in the adjacent, unburned forest [32]. Annual or very
frequent fire probably removes black locust from the community by
preventing sprouts from reaching fire-resistant size. In New York,
black locust communities have formed within the pine barren (pitch pine
[Pinus rigida] and bear oak [Quercus ilicifolia]) habitat type on
abandoned farm land. This habitat type was historically subject to
moderately frequent fire, although fires have been suppressed in recent
times. In the absence of fire, shade tolerant hardwoods replace black
locust, pitch pine, and bear oak [62].
Patterson [67] noted that the small leaflets of black locust in the
litter layer tend to lie flat and stay damp (in contrast to oak and
maple leaves, which crinkle up and dry out), effectively slowing surface
fires.
POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY :
Tree with adventitious-bud root crown/soboliferous species root sucker
FIRE EFFECTS
SPECIES: Robinia pseudoacacia | Black Locust
IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT :
Black locust is usually top-killed by fire when young. Shrub-size black
locust were top-killed by a low-severity, prescribed spring fire in
Indiana [67].
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT :
NO-ENTRY
PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE :
Top-killed black locust may sprout readily from either the bole or
roots. On Indiana prairie, black locust invaded a newly burned area
after one spring prescribed fire, but declined in other burned areas
[30].
In Illinois, plots were subjected to a spring prescribed fire to
maintain prairie conditions and open up adjacent forest understory. The
fire was started in the prairie vegetation where it burned rapidly and
hot. As the fire moved into the prairie-forest interface it cooled
down. By the time it was under canopy trees it was a slowly moving,
patchy fire, consuming only the litter layer. In the first growing
season after this fire, new black locust individuals (either seedlings
or sprouts) were present in high numbers. The numbers of new black
locust seedlings or sprouts decreased in subsequent years, with a
concomitant increase in the number of black locust in the sapling size
classes [1]. In Indiana, prairie plots invaded by black locust (and
other woody species) were cut, stumps were sprayed with picloram, and
then the sites were burned in an effort to control woody species.
Following the fire, approximately one-half of black locust stumps
sprouted; 111 new black locust seedlings and/or root sprouts were
counted on 400 square meters [47].
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE :
NO-ENTRY
FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
Prairie vegetation in Wisconsin has sometimes inadvertently been
maintained because of frequent fires that were started by trains, and
because railroad personnel cleared the area with brush cutters. The
cessation of frequent fires and/or mowing when lines are abandoned
results in invasion by black locust and other woody species [42]. Both
mowing and burning were found to be effective in reducing black locust
cover in Virginia [23]. In contrast, Anderson and Brown [1] reported
that black locust invasion onto prairie and into black oak woods was
encouraged by fire; their study reflects the results of a single fire
however, and may not be indicative of results with periodic fires.
REFERENCES
SPECIES: Robinia pseudoacacia | Black Locust
REFERENCES :
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1981. Incidence and impact of damage to South Carolina's timber, 1979.
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Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station. 34 p. [10981]
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pines upon old-field soils. Journal of Forestry. 43: 441-446. [24589]
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Clay; Perkey, Arlyn W.; Kidd, William E., Jr., eds. Guidelines for
regenerating Appalachian hardwood stands: Workshop proceedings; 1988 May
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Index
Related categories for Species: Robinia pseudoacacia
| Black Locust
|
 |
