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KUCHLER TYPE

KUCHLER TYPE: Mosaic of bluestem prairie and oak-hickory forest
KUCHLER-TYPE-NUMBER : K082 PHYSIOGNOMY : Mosaic of tallgrass prairie, open deciduous forest with rich herb or shrub layer, and relatively closed medium tall to tall deciduous forest [39]. Kuchler [39] excluded savanna from the mosaic of bluestem (Schizachyrium and Andropogon spp.) prairie (K074) and oak (Quercus spp.)-hickory (Carya spp.) forest (K100). He made a distinction between mosaics and transitional vegetation; the mosaic (K082) is composed of islands of "unadulterated" oak-hickory forest with "no blending or merging with the bluestem prairie" [39]. Kuchler excluded savanna vegetation from the mosaic because he did not consider savanna a potential vegetation type in this region [67]. Lemon [40] considered this treatment of the prairie-forest interface "too non-committal"; it does not consider the ecotone or tension zone between the two types. While there are certainly areas within the region mapped as K082 where mosaics occur, other areas are savanna, and considered by most authors as part of the natural potential (and fire-dependent) vegetation in this region [5]. This write-up will discuss those areas of the prairie-forest interface where isolated oak-hickory forests occur in a prairie matrix and will include gallery forest information where it is deemed relevant. Transitional oak savanna vegetation is discussed in the oak-hickory write-up (K100). OCCURRENCE : The mosaic of bluestem prairie and oak-hickory forest occurs within the prairie-forest transition zone. It is mapped as the dominant vegetation on uplands throughout Illinois, central and southern Iowa, eastern Kansas and northern Missouri, with smaller areas in northeastern Oklahoma, southwestern Indiana, central Ohio, and central and southwestern Kentucky [39]. The prairie-forest transition zone has been variously described as broad [11], irregular [57], patchy on a large scale [50], and patchy on a small scale [6]. Prior to European settlement the Prairie Peninsula (a roughly triangular region of tallgrass prairie extending from the Great Plains into Wisconsin, Illinois, and Indiana) was probably covered by a patchwork of grassland, forest, and savanna; vegetative cover was determined mainly by fire frequency under a climatic regime capable of supporting any of these vegetation types [7,52]. Isolated pockets of tallgrass prairie also existed throughout the northeastern deciduous forest, including a more extensive area in west-central Ohio [3]. Prior to 1835, uplands in western Illinois were tallgrass prairie with occasional oak groves. Prairies graded into xerophytic oak-hickory forest on slopes, with more mesophytic types such as white oak (Quercus alba)-basswood (Tillia americana)-sugar maple (Acer saccharum) in lowlands [19]. A study area in north-central Missouri consisting of interspersed prairie and woodland sites contains transitional areas as well. Mesic forest understory vegetation occurs along the lower portions of drainages and extends partway up the northand east-facing slopes. Prairie associations occur in the understories of woodlands on the narrow ridgetops and on high south- and west-facing slopes. There has not been enough research for complete understanding of the dynamics of tallgrass prairie and deciduous forest along the southern edge of the Prairie Peninsula [30]. Grasslands are more frequent towards the northern and western borders of the Ozark Plateau than in the interior. A patchwork of oak-hickory forests, oak savannas, and prairie occurs to the south and west of the Interior Highlands, with some areas of adjacent prairie and forest. The Interior Highlands is a physiographic region composed of the Oachita and Boston mountains of northwestern Arkansas and eastern Oklahoma, and the Springfield and Salem plateaus of the Ozarks of Missouri. The western boundary of the Interior Highlands lies along a line from Columbia, Missouri, to Atoka, Oklahoma [30] and roughly coincides with part of the southern margin of the Prairie Peninsula described by Transeau [52]. This boundary is represented in the vegetation by a boundary between tallgrass prairie and deciduous forest, forming a mosaic of the two types [30]. Here, post oak (Q. stellata) and blackjack oak (Q. marilandica) are dominant in upland woods. In eastern Kansas and western Missouri, woodlands are confined to valley and ravine slopes [2,16]. Eyster-Smith [30] published a reconstruction of the presettlement distribution of prairie vegetation in the western Interior Highlands. COMPILED BY AND DATE : Janet Sullivan, February 1995 LAST REVISED BY AND DATE : NO-ENTRY AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION : Sullivan, Janet. 1995. Mosaic of bluestem prairie and oak-hickory forest. In: Remainder of Citation
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KUCHLER TYPE DESCRIPTION


PHYSIOGRAPHY : The mosaic of bluestem prairie and oak-hickory forest occurs mostly on hilly or highly dissected terrain [68,69]. Original survey notes for Kane County, Illinois, noted that the Grand Prairie was bordered by scattered groves of bur oak (Quercus macrocarpa). These groves occurred primarily on hills and other irregular topography [69]. Prior to 1835 in Ogle County, Illinois, uplands to the west of Rock River were tallgrass prairie with occasional oak groves. On slopes, prairies graded into xerophytic oak-hickory forest with more mesophytic forest types in lowlands [19]. According to Weaver [70], the westernmost extensions of oak forests (Iowa, southeastern Nebraska, western Missouri, and Kansas) occurred along creeks and sheltered ravines which more or less dissect the hilly and rolling portions of the prairie. The western boundary of the Interior Highlands is nearly level to hilly, ranging in elevation from 300 to 2,500 feet (90-760 m) [30]. CLIMATE : On the Konza Prairie, Kansas, which includes bluestem prairie-oak-hickory forest mosaic, climate is continental, with hot summers and cold winters, moderately strong surface winds, and relatively low humidity. There are an average of 180 frost-free days per year, mean annual temperature is 55 degrees Fahrenheit (12.8 deg C), and mean annual precipitation is 33.4 inches (835 mm). May and June are the wettest months, and droughts are frequent [2]. The western boundary of the Interior Highlands has mean annual precipitation of 32 to 48 inches (800-1,200 mm), mean annual temperature of 56 to 63 degrees Fahrenheit (14-17 deg C), and a growing season of approximately 200 days [30]. SOILS : Soil colors and textures on prairie sites are very different from oak-hickory forest sites. Dark, fine-textured soils predominate under prairie vegetation, and yellow to red coarse soils occur in forested areas [16]. In a north-central Missouri prairie-forest tension zone, soil types are classifed as forest, but have certain prairie characteristics and are proximate to prairie soils. Much alternation between prairie and forest has occurred in this area in the past [42]. A patchwork of prairie, savanna, and open forest occurs on sand deposits in central Illinois along the Illinois River [8,9]. VEGETATION : Where prairie and forest meet, vegetation elements usually intergrade rather than form distinct edges [17,42]. Weaver [70] described woodland-prairie contact zones along the Missouri river. He stated that bur oak communities were usually but not always bordered by a more or less continuous community of shrubs [70]. In north-central Missouri, prairie plants exist in the woodlands of a study area within the area mapped as bluestem prairie-oak-hickory mosaic. Even though forest closure has occurred, groups of prairie plants still occupy well-drained sites and/or sites with southern exposures. Prairie plants on these sites show reduced vigor and scarce reproduction [42]. No plant species have been identified as unique to the mosaic of bluestem prairie and oak-hickory forest. Prairie vegetation is described in more detail in the bluestem prairie (K074) write-up; its major components include big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), switch grass (Panicum virgatum), and Indian grass (Sorghastrum nutans) [39]. The composition of oak-hickory forests is discussed in detail in the oak-hickory write-up (K100). Kuchler [39] listed white oak, black oak (Quercus velutina), northern red oak (Q. rubra), bitternut hickory (Carya cordiformis), and shagbark hickory (C. ovata) as dominants. Other components in alphabetical order by scientific name include pignut hickory (C. glabra), white ash (Fraxinus americana), black walnut (Juglans nigra), black cherry (Prunus serotina), chinkapin oak (Q. muehlenbergii), basswood, and American elm (Ulmus americana). In the northern region other components include northern pin oak (Q. ellipsoidalis) and shingle oak (Q. imbricaria). In the southern region other components include black hickory (C. texana), mockernut hickory (C. tomentosa), southern red oak (Q. falcata), overcup oak (Q. lyrata), blackjack oak, Shumard oak (Q. shumardii), and post oak [39]. On the Ozark Plateau in southwest Missouri a mosaic of oak-hickory forest and glade (grassland with very few trees) occurred in a steep hilly region. Dominant glade vegetation included big bluestem, little bluestem, and switch grass with a few post oak, eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana), ash (Fraxinus spp.), and smoke tree (Cotinus obovatus). Old eastern redcedar grow along the ecotone between oak-hickory forest and the glades [33]. Riparian woods in Iowa consist of cottonwoods and poplars (Populus spp.), willows (Salix spp.), and bur oak; on upland sites white oak and shagbark hickory are common dominants. Both of these types contact prairie vegetation [24]. Gallery forest within the Konza Prairie, Kansas, is dominated by bur oak, chinkapin oak, and hackberry (Celtis occidentalis) [2]. WILDLIFE : Grasslands are generally considered relatively depauperate in avian species; conversely, open woodlands are noted for bird species richness. According to Risser and others [68], there is no clearly distinct grassland avifauna. Many grassland species are also found in adjacent savannas and woodlands or are primarily associated with aquatic habitats. For example, two species characteristic of eastern portions of tallgrass prairie, bobolink (Dolichonyx oryzivorus) and brown-headed cowbird (Molothrus ater), are more frequently associated with meadows or ecotonal areas [68]. Wintering birds on the Konza Prairie Research Natural Area, Kansas, were observed in significantly higher numbers in the gallery forest than in the prairie. The red-headed woodpecker (Melanerpes erythrocephalus) was the most abundant species during 1982 and 1984 in the gallery forest; black-capped chickadee (Parus atricapillus) was most abundant in 1983. American tree sparrow (Spizella arborea) was the most abundant species in the prairie during all three winters. In all, 30 species of birds were observed wintering in the gallery forest, and 24 species were observed wintering in the prairie. Fifteen bird species were observed in both prairie and gallery forest, but at different relative frequencies [32]. Further discussion on wildlife is in the bluestem prairie write-up (K074) and the oak-hickory write-up (K100). ECOLOGICAL RELATIONSHIPS : Factors Controlling Distribution: The extent of grasslands is largely determined by low soil moisture and fire [2,53]. Presettlement oak-hickory forests were largely confined to sites that experienced fire less frequently than the surrounding prairie. Oak groves bordering the Grand Prairie of Illinois occur primarily on hills and other areas of irregular topography that provide protection from fires [69]. Both prairie and forest are destabilized by changes in fire frequency or intensity [46]. Further discussion on the relationship of fire and fire frequency to mosaic vegetation is in FIRE ECOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT. Most upland oak species are adapted to periodic fire, periodic drought, and poor soils. Most are at least moderately intolerant of shade [2]. White [58] speculated that at the western limits of the range of sugar maple in the central states, relatively stable populations of sugar maple are restricted to ravines, north slopes, and rough topography; less stable populations that expand and contract with short-term fluctuations in moisture conditions occur on less protected sites. Oak-hickory forests occur on sites that experience periodic fire, but apparently were excluded from sites that experienced annual fire during the presettlement period [3]. Succession: Prairie cover occasionally comes into direct contact with forest cover, especially in the early development of woodlands along streams. Usually, however, grassland is replaced by shrubs that extend outward from the edge of the woodland; shrubs may be replaced by trees without fire. Prairie vegetation is shaded out under a closed shrub canopy [70]. Forest closure eventually displaces prairie species, but successional rates vary in dissected terrain [15,42]. In the lowlands of the Missouri River, bur oak and chinkapin oak are mid-seral species. They are succeeded by northern red oak and shagbark hickory, which may, in turn, be replaced by basswood and eastern hophornbeam (Ostrya virginiana) [2].

KUCHLER TYPE VALUE AND USE

KUCHLER TYPE: Mosaic of bluestem prairie and oak-hickory forest
FORESTRY VALUES : Oak-hickory forests are highly valued for wood products. See the oak-hickory write-up (K100) for further information. RANGE VALUES : Bluestem prairie is highly valued for range and pasture. Bluestem prairie sites are also heavily cultivated. See the bluestem prairie write-up (K074) for further information. WILDLIFE VALUES : Structure and vegetation richness in the bluestem prairie-oak-hickory mosaic is greater than in either type alone. This variety may increase the number of wildlife species in the mosaic. Edge is important to a number of wildlife species. In many studies, wildlife numbers were found to increase with increases in edge [63]. However, habitat quality is related to patch size. In recent years grassland bird populations have been declining over much of North America, especially in the midwestern corn belt [64]. Narrow grassy edges between row crops are depauperate in nesting bird species compared to larger grassy plots or grassy plots within forage crops [65]. Grassland birds in Illinois are strongly influenced by patch size. Small fragments less than 25 acres (10 ha) are particularly impoverished [66]. OTHER VALUES : NO-ENTRY MANAGEMENT CONCERNS : Most of the original prairie-forest contact zone vegetation has been lost due to clearing, grazing, and fire suppression. Many savanna stands have converted to closed forest, and much prairie has been converted to cropland or developed for human habitation [42]. Reconstruction of historic vegetation patterns in Kansas from Land Office Survey records indicated a dramatic expansion of gallery forests from 1859 to 1939, and they continued to expand through 1978. Increases in woody vegetation were attributed to decreased fire severity and frequency since European settlement [2,3]. Attempts to reestablish presettlement vegetation depend on availability of local seed sources. On the Grand Prairie, Illinois, a survey located numerous characteristic prairie species in the woodland understory, but only on narrow, well-drained ridgetops and on south- and west-facing slopes. These species could serve as a natural seed source, but only for nearby plots. Plots farther away would have to be artificially seeded [42].

KUCHLER TYPE FIRE ECOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

KUCHLER TYPE: Mosaic of bluestem prairie and oak-hickory forest
FUELS, FLAMMABILITY, AND FIRE OCCURRENCE : Fuels and Fuel Accumulation Rates: In the prairie-hardwood transition areas fires tended to occur at intervals coinciding with the length of mid- to late-seral stages. Fuel accumulation was sufficient to support fire severe enough to top-kill hardwoods. In Illinois, available fuel increased along a gradient from sand prairie through a prairie-forest transition to closed forest. Severe fire converts closed forests to open woodlands with less fuel and less severe fire. Periodic fire that reduces fuel loads would probably maintain open forests [8,9]. Presettlement Fire Frequency: In southern Illinois, presettlement vegetation on what is now the Sand Prairie-Scrub Oak Nature Preserve was a patchwork of prairies, savannas, and forests of various densities. The fire frequency of individual habitats within the preserve varied from nearly annual fire in the grasslands to fire exclusion for centuries in some forests [10]. Mean fire intervals estimated for gallery forest sites on the Konza Prairie, Kansas, averaged 19 years (ranging from 23-40 years) [2]. On the Prairie Peninsula, presettlement fire frequency may have been enhanced by aboriginal cultural practices, and fire severity reduced by bison and elk grazing [2]. Frequency of fires in historic times was also controlled by topographic relief and the distribution of firebreaks; sites with rough topography experienced fewer fires than smooth or rolling landscapes [7]. Postsettlement Fire Frequency: Following settlement, fire frequency and severity decreased because of road construction, settlement (towns tend to act as prairie firebreaks), cattle grazing, active suppression of wildfire, and recommendations against prescribed fire [2,3]. Gallery forests in Kansas and elsewhere have experienced decreased fire incidence and have increased in extent since European settlement [2]. FIRE EFFECTS ON SITE : NO-ENTRY FIRE EFFECTS ON VEGETATION : Prairie-forest transition plants are highly adapted to fire. The trees have thick bark and sprout from the root crown after fire injury or top-kill [53]. Oaks are relatively resistant to fire; on some sites, even frequent fire does not eliminate oaks [23]. Bur oak, for example, sprouts from the root crown following fire damage. If bur oak sprouts are not burned for 12 to 15 years, they grow large enough to survive most surface fires [53]. In gallery forests prescribed burned in 2 successive years, sapling and shrub cover was reduced but large diameter trees suffered little or no damage [2,3]. Herbs, mostly grasses, have growing points beneath the soil surfaces and are protected from fire [38]. Lorimer [41] rated upland oaks in order of decreasing bark thickness: bur oak, black oak, white oak, and northern red oak. The relatively thin bark of northern red oak may explain why bur oak and white oak are maintained in gallery forests whereas frequent fire reduces northern red oak to shrubby clumps originating from sprouts [24]. At Howe's Prairie, Indiana, tree basal areas decreased with prescribed fire, largely as a result of top-kill. The proportion of trees killed was positively correlated with fireline intensity and negatively correlated with tree diameter at breast height [21]. A single spring headfire was conducted in a bur oak-white oak-shagbark hickory stand in Wisconsin. The vast majority of seedlings sprouted after top-kill. Damage was inversely related to stem diameter. Oaks were slightly less susceptible to fire damage than black cherry and hickorys [34]. Most ecologists believe that fire was important in maintaining the complex patterns of vegetation types in the prairie-forest interface [29]. The regional effect of fire on vegetation was influenced by a variety of factors, including precipitation patterns before and after a fire, prefire vegetative composition, topography, and season of burning [26]. According to Hulbert [35], fire is necessary to keep woody plants from replacing tallgrass prairie, but fire alone does not make prairie. It is the combination of fire, climate, substrate, and topography that accounts for prairie [14,35]. Fire, perhaps more than any other factor, maintained grasslands and the parklike aspect of the Ozarks [13]. Harty [62] suggested that the low density and basal area of presettlement forests in the Shawnee Hills, Illinois, were similar to those of present day forests that have been disturbed by light cutting and fire. Bryant and others [18] stated that the particular role of fire in this ecosystem is not clear since each fire has a different impact on vegetation. Tallgrass prairie in moist situations is quickly converted to woody vegetation without fire [38,15]. Woodlands have increased in extent in the central Great Plains, and in many areas succession to shade-tolerant hardwoods has occurred or is occurring [2,3]. The influence of fire on the maintenance of bluestem prairie-oak-hickory mosaic is not well understood. Cole and others [22] suggested that in a region where some vegetation types are more fire-adapted than others, fire-created mosaics are self-perpetuating. A severe fire may open up an area occupied by less fire-adapted vegetation to invasion by fire-adapted species. The fire-adapted species may be more fire prone and therefore self-maintaining. Once severe fire eliminates forests, frequent high temperature fires in grasslands prevent reinvasion by woody species. The mosaic of forest and grassland could therefore only be perpetuated where firebreaks prevent spread of fire into forest, or where forest floor fuels are sufficiently moist to slow down or prevent fire spread into the forest [22]. Fire regime is closely related to the extent of gallery forests; their limited extent prior to European settlement has been attributed at least in part to frequent grass fires that prevented establishment of woody vegetation [2,3]. Open forests occur on slopes of glacial moraines that were historically subjected to occasional fires at longer intervals than prairie; vegetation of these types is relatively shade-intolerant and moderately fire resistant. Closed forest occurs in stream valleys and protected areas adjacent to waterways and contains vegetation that is more mesophytic and more shade tolerant, but less fire resistant [7]. In Missouri the effects of fire suppression (initiated in 1936) had become apparent by the late 1960's. Many areas had experienced increases in eastern redcedar and cool-season exotic grasses; thousands of acres of glades and prairies were affected [20]. FIRE EFFECTS ON RESOURCE MANAGEMENT : NO-ENTRY FIRE USE CONSIDERATIONS : At Howe's Prairie, Indiana, (a complex of oak woods and prairie communities), prescribed fires in oak woods and mesic woods dominated by red maple (Acer rubrum) produced lower aboveground temperatures and higher belowground temperatures than fires in wet or mesic prairies [21]. Creeping fires in oak woods often only burned litter, sometimes producing no high temperatures above 8 inches (20 cm) when burning downhill [22]. FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS : The use of fire in central deciduous forest has declined with abandonment of open range practices and intensification and specialization in land use [54]. Fire is applied in hardwood and mixed forests as a wildlife management tool [59] and to modify understory composition or size class structure [55,31]. Recently, fire has been reintroduced to restore and maintain prairie-forest transition zone characteristics [45,46]. Anderson and Brown [8,9] examined the role of fire in maintaining the mosaic of prairie, savanna, and open forest on sand deposits along the Illinois River in central Illinois. Here, fire maintained sand praires, savannas, and open forests, but destabilized closed oak forest [8,9]. In southern Illinois fire is used by the Illinois Department of Conservation to maintain a mosaic of grassland, savanna, and closed forest [8]. The sand prairie in this area has been burned at 4-year intervals since 1976. Initially, substantial differences occurred in insect populations, but by the third postfire growing season most of the differences disappeared [10]. On the Shawnee National Forest in Illinois, restoration and maintenance of a complex mosaic of woodlands, forests, and barrens is being carried out with landscape-scale prescribed fire and other techniques. Where conditions allow, large areas of grasslands are ignited and allowed to burn. Fire spread into adjacent forest and open woodland is regulated by local topography and local weather and fuel conditions [51]. In many prairie preserves fire management has included burning grasslands and preventing fire spread into adjacent woodlots. This approach maintains a mosaic of grassland and forest, although it may not resemble the presettlement bluestem prairie-oak-hickory forest mosaic. Presettlement vegetation included transitional areas of various widths in which trees were farther apart and understory vegetation had a strong prairie influence [47]. Abrams [2] suggested that long-term annual burning may prevent succession from bur oak to hackberry; it will probably result, at least temporarily, in oak savanna. Annual fire, however, may remove all tree reproduction and establish prairie as existing oaks die. Season of burning affects results, but most woody plant species are reduced by most fires [4]. Fall burning appears to be more effective than spring burning in reducing woody species in Iowa [35]. REHABILITATION OF SITES FOLLOWING WILDFIRE : NO-ENTRY

References for species: [275]


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30. Eyster-Smith, Nancy M. 1983. The prairie-forest ecotone of the western interior highlands: an introduction to the tallgrass prairies. In: Brewer, Richard, ed. Proceedings, 8th North American prairie conference; 1982 August 1-4; Kalamazoo, MI. Kalamazoo, MI: Western Michigan University, Department of Biology: 73-80. [3124]
31. Faulkner, Jerry L.; Clebsch, Edward E. C.; Sanders, William L. 1989. Use of prescribed burning for managing natural and historic resources in Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park, U.S.A. Environmental Management. 13(5): 603-612. [13020]
32. Finck, Elmer J. 1986. Birds wintering on the Konza Prairie Research Natural Area. In: Clambey, Gary K.; Pemble, Richard H., eds. The prairie: past, present and future: Proceedings, 9th North American prairie conference; 1984 July 29 - August 1; Moorhead, MN. Fargo, ND: Tri-College University Center for Environmental Studies: 91-94. [3535]
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