|
Wildlife, Animals, and Plants
|
|
KUCHLER TYPE
KUCHLER TYPE: Conifer bog
KUCHLER-TYPE-NUMBER :
K094
PHYSIOGNOMY :
Conifer bogs are dense to open, low to medium tall forests of needleleaf
evergreen or deciduous trees with a peat substrate. Open stands have a
dense shrub layer [7,22].
Damman and French [7] described three physiognomic types of conifer
bogs: 1) dwarf-shrub bogs with scattered tamarack (Larix laricina) or
black spruce (Picea mariana) trees and a dwarf shrub layer dominated by
evergreen ericaceous shrubs, 2) tall-shrub thicket bogs dominated by
deciduous ericaceous shrubs, usually with a tree layer composed of black
spruce, tamarack, and red maple (Acer rubrum), and 3) forested bogs
dominated by black spruce with ericaceous dwarf shrubs. Two additional
physiognomic types are nonforested [7].
OCCURRENCE :
As defined by Kuchler [22], conifer bogs are included in the following
Society of American Foresters cover types: black spruce (SAF 12,
particularly the black spruce/sphagnum [Sphagnum spp.] subtype), black
spruce-tamarack (SAF 13), tamarack (SAF 38), and northern white-cedar
(Thuja occidentalis) (SAF 37) [10,22]. The Committee on Nomenclature of
the Ecological Society of America defines a bog as that stage in
physiographic succession of an area in which the surface is entirely of
living sphagnum moss, with or without a tree layer [8]. Bogs are
distinct from swamps (forested wetlands with little or no peat
development), and marshes (wetlands with or without peat dominated by
graminoid vegetation). Bogs either develop in depressions with bodies
of standing water (lake-filling processes), or are created by the
extension of existing peatlands (paludification) [8,11,17].
Peatlands are usually distinguished by hydrological characteristics.
The source and direction of flow of water determines the mineral
nutrient status of a peatland. The classification system of Smith and
others [28] for Ontario distinguished bog from fen on the basis of
nutrient status. Conifer bogs are dominated by black spruce and
tamarack, and tamarack-sedge fens are dominated by tamarack but with
some associated black spruce [28]. According to Johnston [20], "bog"
refers to peatlands that are ombrotrophic to very oligotrophic;
minerotrophic and less oligotrophic sites are called fens. Bogs,
therefore, are flat to raised peatlands that receive only rainwater, and
fens are peatlands that are level, on slopes, or in depressions and
receive groundwater-carried nutrients [20]. Damman and French [7],
however, noted that since all peatlands include minerotrophic sites at
least at the margins, the use of minerotrophic versus ombrotrophic for
peatland classification at the landform level is not useful. They
prefer to distinguish peatlands on the basis of the nature of the water
that controls development, and use the terms ombrogenous (controlled by
precipitation), topogenous (water accumulation in a basin, permanent
ground-water table), limnogenous (lake-fill, slow-moving streams), and
soligenous (on slopes supplied by minerotrophic seepage water). Conifer
bog, as used by Kuchler, is inclusive of these types and will be used in
this write-up to refer to the abovementioned range of peatland types [7]
and including "bog" and "fen" sensu Johnston [20].
Conifer bogs occur from the Maritime Provinces of Canada through Quebec
and Ontario south through New England and the Great Lakes States.
Lake-filled conifer bogs are scattered extensively throughout Canada and
the northern United States as far south as New Jersey and Ohio.
Individual bogs in the United States are usually of small area, but
collectively the type covers an extensive area [21]. Conifer bogs
occurring in Itasca State Park, Minnesota, are mostly smaller than 2
acres (0.8 ha) [13]. In the northeastern United States, bogs are most
abundant in the northern hardwood forest and boreal forest regions [21].
Conifer bogs are extensive across northern Minnesota. The peatlands of
the Glacial Lake Agassiz area of Minnesota are the largest unbroken
tracts of organic terrain in the northern United States, and were formed
largely through paludification [14].
STATES:
CT, MA, ME, MN, NJ, NH, NY, OH, PA, VT, WI, NB, NS, ON, PE, PQ
COMPILED BY AND DATE :
Janet Sullivan, December 1994
LAST REVISED BY AND DATE :
NO-ENTRY
AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION :
Sullivan, Janet. 1994. Conifer bog. In: Remainder of Citation
Kuchler Type Index
FEIS Home
KUCHLER TYPE DESCRIPTION
PHYSIOGRAPHY :
Conifer bogs occur in shallow peat-filled basins on slopes, on level
peatlands, or in raised peat. Bogs are hydrated by acidic,
nutrient-poor water [7,8]. South of the geographic limit of ombrogenous
bogs, conifer bogs are restricted to two types of landscapes: areas
underlain by sand and gravel mostly in valleys and on the coastal
plains, and areas underlain by glacial till derived from acidic rocks
such as gneiss, schist, sandstone, or granite [7].
The interlaced roots and rhizomes that form the bog surface mat can be
firm enough to walk on even though they are actually floating, hence the
term quaking bog. Peat can only accumulate where there is sufficient
water to retard decomposition of litter and debris. This condition can
be met by particular combinations of climate and topography; basins in
cool climates often accumulat peat, but level sites where humidity is
very high can also do so [20]. Bogs modify the local drainage patterns
by retention of water in the layers of peat [8]. Peatlands have an
active upper zone (acrotelm) in which water can circulate freely, and a
lower zone (catotelm) in which water is tightly bound in the intra- and
intercellular spaces. It has been estimated that less than 1 percent of
all the water that leaves a peatland does so from the lower zone. Early
hypotheses suggested that peatlands give up water to adjacent areas
during drought, but recent studies show that when the water table drops
during dry periods, water in the lower zone is still retained by the
peatland [20].
CLIMATE :
In the northern parts of the Great Lakes States, the climate is subhumid
continental. The summers are short and warm and the winters are long
and cold. Mean annual precipitation ranges from 20 inches (508 mm) in
northwestern Minnesota to 34 inches (860 mm) in the upper peninsula of
Michigan. Approximately two-thirds of the precipitation falls as rain
during the warm seasons. Average January temperatures range from 2
degrees Fahrenheit (-17 deg C) in Minnesota to 16 degrees Fahrenheit
(-10 degrees C) in Michigan. Average July temperatures are about 67
degrees Fahrenheit (20 deg C) in the northern parts of the Great Lakes
States (northern Minnesota, upper Michigan, and northern Wisconsin) [3].
SOILS :
Conifer bogs occupy low, wet, minerotrophic to ombrotrophic peat [8].
Bogs are saturated with water for most or all of the year [7]. The open
water adjacent to bogs can be alkaline or acidic, but under and in the
midst of sphagnum mosses the water is always acidic [8]. Sphagnum peats
are acidic, poorly to very poorly drained, and mostly humic gleysols or
terric humisols [10]. Black spruce-Alnus bogs, as defined by Kurmis and
others [23], have slightly higher nutrient levels than black
spruce-Kalmia bogs [23].
VEGETATION :
Conifer bogs are dominated by pure stands or mixtures of tamarack, black
spruce, and northern white-cedar [21,22]. Vascular plant diversity in
forested bogs is usually low, but the bryophytic and lichen flora may be
relatively diverse [26]. Minerotrophic sites have higher vegetative
diversity than ombrotrophic sites, though they have many species in
common [3]. Black spruce in nutrient-poor bogs usually exhibits
severely stunted growth [21].
Northern white-cedar-dominated types: Even-aged stands of northern
white-cedar originate in large openings created by wildfire or
clearcutting. Uneven-aged stands of northern white-cedar develop where
northern white-cedar is successional to black spruce or tamarack, or
where reproduction has occurred in canopy gaps caused by windthrow.
Northern white-cedar invades speckled alder (Alnus rugosa) thickets
following wildfire or changes in water level. The most common
associates of northern white-cedar on wet sites in the boreal regions of
Canada are balsam fir (Abies balsamea) and tamarack. Farther south,
associated species on very wet sites include black spruce, tamarack,
black ash (Fraxinus nigra), and red maple [10].
Tamarack-dominated types: Associates of tamarack on bogs include
northern white-cedar, balsam fir, black ash, and red maple. Tamarack
stands often support an understory of black spruce. [10]. Open stands
of tamarack support tall shrubs including swamp birch (Betula pumila),
willows (Salix spp.), speckled alder, rhodora (Rhododendron canadense),
and red-osier dogwood (Cornus sericea). Low shrubs include bog Labrador
tea (Ledum groenlandicum), bog-rosemary (Andromeda glaucophylla),
leatherleaf (Chamaedaphne calycalulata), bearberry (Arctostaphylos
uva-ursi), huckleberries (Gaylussacia spp.), sweet gale (Myrica gale),
and blueberries and cranberries (Vaccinium spp.) [10,21]. Herbs
include sedges (Carex and Cyperus spp.), cottongrasses (Eriophorum
spp.), starry Solomon's seal (Smilacina stellata), marsh cinquefoil
(Potentilla palustris), marsh-marigold (Caltha palustris), and bogbean
(Menyanthes trifoliata) [10].
Black spruce-dominated communities: Overstories are either pure stands
of black spruce or mixtures with tamarack, paper birch (Betula
papyrifera), and balsam fir (in the boreal regions), or with northern
white-cedar, black ash, and red maple farther south. The presence of a
shrub layer depends on canopy density. Very open stands have a
well-developed shrub layer and dense stands tend to have only sparse
shrubs [21]. Reschke [26] described black spruce-tamarack communities
in New York. The black spruce and/or tamarack cover ranged from less
than 50 to 90 percent. Open stands had a well-developed shrub layer
which included leatherleaf, bog-laurel (Kalmia polifolia), sheep-laurel
(K. angustifolia), highbush blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum), bog
Labrador tea, and mountain-holly (Nemopanthus mucronatus). The ground
cover typically consisted of sphagnum mosses, threeseeded sedge (Carex
trisperma), cottongrasses, purple pitcherplant (Sarracenia purpurea),
and small cranberry (V. oxycoccus). Under dense shade, groundlayer
plants included goldthread (Coptis trifolia) and creeping winterberry
(Gaultheria procumbens) [26]. Species occurring in the black
spruce/sphagnum variant of SAF cover type 12 include low sweet blueberry
(V. angustifolium), bog-laurel, cottongrasses, pitcher plants
(Sarracenia spp.), small cranberry, and round-leaved sundew (Drosera
rotundifolia). Sheep-laurel is usually the dominant shrub in eastern
black spruce bogs from the southern boreal forest southward.
Leatherleaf and locally, bog Labrador tea, are dominant to the west and
north [10]. Another variant, black spruce/speckled alder, is also
common. These communities are open to well-stocked stands with
well-developed tall shrub and herb layers.
Kurmis and others [23] described the following lowland black spruce
cover types in Minnesota: black spruce-Alnus and black spruce-Kalmia.
The black spruce-Alnus type is dominated by pure to nearly pure stands
of black spruce. It has a tall shrub layer that is dominated by
speckled alder and includes bog Labrador tea and creeping winterberry.
The ground layer is dominated by sphagnum mosses. The black
spruce-Kalmia type is similar to the black spruce-Alnus type. It
consists of open stands of black spruce over sphagnum mosses and low
shrubs. Species diversity is low and upland plants are rare. Speckled
alder may be present but is not extensive [23].
Niemi and others [25] described two community types that appear to be
similar to conifer bog as defined by Kuchler: semi-open conifer lowland
and mature conifer lowland. Semi-open conifer lowland consists of a
dense, low-lying heath layer up to 3.3 feet (1 m) high, and a sparse to
moderately dense tree layer up to 19.8 feet (6 m) tall usually composed
of black spruce or tamarack. The mature conifer lowlands are closed
stands of black spruce, tamarack, or northern white-cedar. The closed
canopy is up to 66 feet (20 m) high; there is a sparse shrub layer and a
dense herb layer mostly composed of ericaceous shrubs and mosses [25].
WILDLIFE :
None of the animal species that occur in conifer bogs occur there
exclusively, but several bird species reach their highest densities in
conifer bogs: spruce grouse (Dendragapus canadensis), yellow-bellied
flycatcher (Empidonax flaviventris), palm warbler (Dendroica palmarum),
Connecticut warbler (Oporonis agilis), northern waterthrush (Seiurus
noveboracensis), and Lincoln's sparrow (Melospiza lincolnii) [4,9].
Birds inhabiting or frequenting conifer bogs include olive-sided
flycatcher (Contopus borealis), Nashville warbler (Vermivora
ruficapilla), rusty blackbird (Euphagus carolinus), three-toed
woodpecker (Picoides tridactylus), black-backed woodpecker (P.
arcticus), gray jay (Perisoreus canadensis), golden-crowned kinglet
(Regulus satrapa), ruby-crowned kinglet (R. calendula), tree swallow
(Tachycineta bicolor), boreal chickadee (Parus hudsonicus), hermit
thrush (Catharus guttatus), Swainson's thrush (C. ustulatus), solitary
vireo (Vireo solitarius), red-eyed vireo (V. olivaceus), black-and-white
warbler (Mniotilta varia), Cape May warbler (Dendroica tigrina),
yellow-rumped warbler (D. coronata), Blackburnian warbler (D. fusca),
bay-breasted warbler (D. castanea), common yellowthroat (Geothlypis
trichas), evening grosbeak (Coccothrastes vespertinus), dark-eyed junco
(Junco hyemalis), chipping sparrow (Spizella passerina), white-throated
sparrow (Zonotrichia albicollis), and swamp sparrow (Melospiza
georgiana) [7,8,9,25,26]. Birds occurring in the Lost River Peatland of
northern Minnesota include sharp-tailed grouse (Tympanuchus
phasianellus), ruffed grouse (Bonasa umbellus), spruce grouse, and
common raven (Corvus corax) in addition to many of the abovementioned
species [2].
On bogs dominated by tamarack, birds that use shrubby habitats are
present. Great gray owl (Strix nebulosa) use tamarack bogs as a major
portion of their habitat. In northern white-cedar stands, there may be
high densities of northern parula (Parula americana) and black-throated
green warblers (Dendroica negrescens) [9].
Mammals: Most of the large mammals occurring in the northeastern United
States move across peatlands but do not spend much time in them. Moose
(Alces alces), white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginiana), and black bear
(Ursus americana) use peatlands more than other large mammals do. Moose
make extensive use of aquatic habitats during the summer [7]. The
timber wolf (Canis lupus) occurs in northern Michigan and uses conifer
bogs in winter [2]. The woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou) is
extant in Canada and sometimes uses conifer bogs [2].
Other bog-using mammals include common porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum)
[21], southern bog lemming (Synaptopmys cooperi), and northern bog
lemming (S. borealis). Lemmings are more closely associated with
sphagnum than with peatlands per se and also occupy more upland
habitats. Other rodents common in bogs include masked shrew (Sorex
cinereus), water shrew (S. palustris), smokey shrew (S. fumeus), pygmy
shrew (S. hoyi), meadow jumping mouse (Zapus hudsonius), white-footed
mouse (Peromyscus leucopus), and southern red-backed vole (Clethrionomys
gapperi) [7].
Herpetofauna: Few amphibians or reptiles can be considered peatland
species even though many are found in peatlands. Low pH, low
temperatures, and saturated substrates make bogs unsuitable habitat for
some species but favorable for others. Amphibian species occurring in
bogs include wood frog (Rana sylvatica), green frog (R. clamitans),
northern leopard frog (R. pipiens), blue-spotted salamander (Ambystoma
laterale) [7], and four-toed salamander (Hemidactylium scutatum) [26].
Reptiles include eastern garter snake (Thamnophis sirtalis), bog turtle
(Clemmys muhlenbergii), and spotted turtle (C. guttata) [7].
ECOLOGICAL RELATIONSHIPS :
There are two primary paths of bog development: lake-fill and
paludification [17].
Lake-fill Bogs: Bogs develop in lakes where vegetation bordering the
lake begins to encroach into the area of open water. Gates [11]
suggested that, in northern lower Michigan, the type of vegetation
occupying the shore of a lake determines the fate of the area.
Soft-stem bulrush (Scirpus validus) and Olney threesquare (S.
americanus) are more likely to be followed by marshes or wooded swamps
than by bogs. A bog develops if woollyfruit sedge (Carex lasiocarpa) is
present. This sedge forms rhizomes that grow out into the water and
develop into a floating mat [8,11]. Sphagnum mosses and ericaceous
shrubs invade the sedge mat and further increase organic material
deposition and soil formation, eventually making contact with the actual
lake bottom. Bogbean and sweet gale are often pioneers on sphagnum
mats. Leatherleaf and other species such as bog Labrador tea follow.
Eventually, when the substrate is firm, trees colonize the shrub
community; tamarack is usually the first species to establish [9]. The
limit to bog formation is reached where vegetative evapotranspiration
rates are higher than the bog water-holding capacity. This can lead
succession to more mesic types and the establishment of birches (Betula
spp.) and aspens (Populus spp.). The removal of trees adjacent to bogs
lowers the evapotranspiration capacity of the site and may lead to bog
expansion (see section on paludification below) [8].
Lake-fill bogs have vegetation zones corresponding to successional
stages. Tree growth is most dense around the outer edges. Shrubs form
a ring along the interior edge of the trees. In the center sphagnum and
other mosses and sedges form dense mats. There may be areas of open
water. This type of bog may remain relatively stable for long periods,
may be replaced by upland forest [21], or may invade upland forest areas
and convert them to peatlands (paludification). Tamarack and black
spruce are usually the first trees to colonize the sedge mat in
lake-fill bogs [31].
Paludification: Paludification is the creation of a peatland by the
drowning or submergence of upland habitats. Local paludification may
result from altered drainage (i.e., a beaver dam) or the lateral
expansion of raised peatlands. Regional paludification, a widespread
expansion of peatlands through the elevation of the water table, can be
caused by regional or global climate change [17]. With a rise in the
water table, roots of upland plants are suffocated and peat begins to
accumulate. Peat retains water and impedes drainage, increasing the
rate of peat build up and allowing peatland to expand [20].
Trees initially colonize open bogs by seed, but tree cover increases in
conifer bogs largely due to layering. Tree survival and growth depend
on root growth in the upper layers of peat. New roots form from the
trunks of black spruce, northern white-cedar, and tamarack, extending
into the uppermost and best oxygenated layers of peat. The original
base of the tree trunk may be buried several feet beneath the surface.
Tree growth is usually very slow, particularly on ombrotrophic sites.
Trees only 3 to 4 inches (7.6-10 cm) d.b.h. may be as old as 150 years [4].
Tamarack is a pioneer tree species, especially on burned organic soils
and on open (treeless), unburned bogs. It is intolerant of shade and is
usually replaced by black spruce [10]. Occasional high water levels
will kill tamarack [19].
Black spruce stands form an edaphic climax in boreal and subarctic
ecosystems [10], and black spruce is dominant on nutrient-poor peatlands
where competition is low [31]. In central Quebec black spruce stands
over 200 years old show poor growth, have limited reproduction, and tend
to have dense shrub layers in canopy gaps. Dead trees are only
partially replaced by layering. These stands are rejuvenated by fire:
Black spruce is often a postfire pioneer on peatlands, and therefore the
type is maintained by fire disturbance [6,31]. Further discussion is in
FIRE ECOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT.
KUCHLER TYPE VALUE AND USE
KUCHLER TYPE: Conifer bog
FORESTRY VALUES :
Black spruce is used mostly for pulpwood [1,18]. Lowland conifer
forests including bogs are mostly noncommercial because of the stunted
and sparse growth of timber [9]. The most productive black spruce
growth usually occurs on slopes of greater than 8 feet per mile (1.5
m/km), which ensures a balance between nutrient supply and aeration. On
ombrotrophic sites, black spruce stands grow best where the gradient is
highest and the water table is relatively low [3].
Black spruce regeneration is best on sphagnum mosses and poor on
feathermosses (Pleurozium and Hylocomium spp.). Seedling establishment
is excellent on fire-prepared seedbeds. Prescribed fire is recommended
after harvest to remove slash and prepare seedbeds [5].
RANGE VALUES :
NO-ENTRY
WILDLIFE VALUES :
The edges of bogs provide good browse, and deer use is so heavy in some
Maine bogs that browse lines are apparent [7]. Northern white-cedar is
important in some areas for winter deer browse; many northern
white-cedar stands are important deer yarding areas [10,30]. In the
northeastern United States, bogs and other wetlands provide important
thick escape cover for black bear and an abundance of succulent food in
the post-denning period [7].
Threatened and rare birds using conifer bog habitat include sharp-tailed
sparrow (Ammodramus caudacutus), sora (Porzana carolina), short-eared
owl (Asio flammeus), greater sandhill crane (Grus canadensis), and great
gray owl [4]. In Minnesota, much of the habitat of the great gray owl
is tamarack swamp, but since trees are of poor form for nest building,
most great gray owl nests are located in dominant hardwood associations
near tamarack swamps [29].
Trees killed by fire, disease, insects, or high water in lowland conifer
forests attract brown creeper (Certhia americana) and woodpeckers. The
black-backed woodpecker is likely to be found in areas with many
standing dead trees [9].
Winter bird populations in lowland conifer forests vary with black
spruce seed crops. In good seed years there is an influx of northern
finches including pine grosbeak (Pinicola enucleator), pine siskin
(Carduelis pinus), red crossbill (Loxia curvirostra), and white-winged
crossbill (L. leucoptera). Most tamarack seed falls by the end of
October and is therefore largely unavailable to these birds [9].
OTHER VALUES :
Many plants occurring in conifer bogs were used by Native Americans for
food, medicines, and charms [17].
Peat mining, primarily for fuel, has greatly reduced the extent of
peatlands in northern Europe and Russia. In North America, peatlands
are not cut extensively; most of the peat that is mined is used for
horticultural purposes. Peat may be used as an alternative fuel in the
United States when it is economically feasible [4].
The role of bogs in methane production is considerable. It has been
estimated that peatlands of all types produce as much as 40 percent of
the world's methane. This is a major contribution to greenhouse gases.
It may, however, be somewhat balanced by the fact the peatlands act as a
sink for carbon dioxide. Peatlands store approximately 15 to 20 percent
of all terrestrial carbon in the form of undecayed trees and other
organic matter [4].
MANAGEMENT CONCERNS :
Several rare plant species occur in conifer bogs including ram's head
lady slipper (Cyprepedium arietinum) and some rare sundews (Drosera
spp.). Several species of mosses and sedges grow only in peatlands
[21]. Isolation of wetland pockets including conifer bogs by
residential and industrial development reduces the value of suitable
bear habitat and increases the vulnerability of bears to hunting [7].
Porcupine damage to northern white-cedar and tamarack can be severe
[19,20]. Flooding caused by beaver dams can seriously damage peatlands.
Bogs with floating mats are the least affected, because rising water
levels flood only the grounded mat near the upland margin of the bog
[7].
KUCHLER TYPE FIRE ECOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT
KUCHLER TYPE: Conifer bog
FUELS, FLAMMABILITY, AND FIRE OCCURRENCE :
In years of average precipitation, bogs are usually too wet to burn
[12]. During drought years, however, bog surfaces can be dry enough to
support fire [9]. In northen Minnesota peatlands, many conifer bogs
dominated by black spruce burned in the same fires that consumed
adjacent uplands [15].
Fire Frequency: Fire is ubiquitous in the boreal forest region.
Cogbill [6] estimated that the mean fire return interval in central
Quebec, averaged over all forest types, is about 100 years. He also
estimated an increase in fire frequency as a result of human activities
including logging and fire suppression; the average age of the sites he
sampled was 72 years. Conifer bogs burn less frequently than upland
sites. The ages of trees in conifer bogs were mostly between 80 and 140
years and no stand was over 217 years old, indicating that fire
frequency is on the order of 100-200 years [6].
FIRE EFFECTS ON SITE :
High-severity fire may result in a substantial loss of peat [9].
FIRE EFFECTS ON VEGETATION :
Immediate Effects of Fire: Tamarack, black spruce, and northern
white-cedar are all easily damaged by fire. In peatlands, tamarack is
usually killed by all but extremely low-severity fire [19]. Northern
white-cedar is susceptible to fire damage due to its thin bark, high oil
content, and shallow roots. Low-severity fire damages roots [20].
Gates [11] reported large areas in northern lower Michigan conifer bogs
where black spruce had been killed by fire.
Postfire Vegetation Establishment: Lowland conifers establish well on
burned organic soils as long as a seed source is available. Fire in
peatlands usually results in rapid establishment of black spruce from
seed. Black spruce cones are semi-serotinous and are held high in the
crown. Fire-killed stands of black spruce usually have sufficient
viable seed to establish dense even-aged stands [31]. Central Quebec
postfire stands of black spruce had achieved 60 percent of total
recruitment in the first 30 years after a fire [6]. Closed stands with
a fire-free interval of more than 100 years are uneven aged due to
reproduction by layering in canopy gaps [31]. Dense seedling stands of
tamarack are sometimes established in burned or otherwise disturbed
areas on bogs, forming even-aged postfire stands [10,11].
Sprouting of understory species depends on fire severity and the depth
of perennating tissues. Small cranberry, bog-rosemary, sheep-laurel,
leatherleaf, bog Labrador tea, and rhodora are typically the first
species to appear on burned bogs [12]. Flinn and Wein [12] reported the
mean depth of underground reproductive tissues for common bog species in
New Brunswick. Cottongrasses and pitcherplant had average depths of 5.2
inches (13 cm) for reproductive tissues (as measured from the moss
layer). Depths of reproductive tissues of shrubby species ranged as
follows:
inches (cm)
small cranberry 8.8-13.2 (22-33)
bog-rosemary 7.5-14.6 (19-37)
sheep-laurel 6.2-14.2 (16-36)
leatherleaf 8.3-14.9 (21-38)
bog Labrador tea 18.1-18.9 (46-48)
rhodora 18.5 (47)
Severe fire and substantial peat loss may lead to the development of an
open bog-sedge community rather than establishment or reestablishment of
black spruce or other lowland conifers. On very dry burned peat,
quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides) and paper birch may establish in
place of lowland conifers; succession is then similar to that of upland
sites [9].
FIRE EFFECTS ON RESOURCE MANAGEMENT :
Fire alters habitat for birds. In the Seney National Wildlife Refuge,
Michigan, birds present in mature black spruce stands included Cape May
warbler, magnolia warbler (Dendroica magnolia), ovenbird (Seiurus
aurocapillus), and golden-crowned kinglet; none of these species was
found in an adjacent 19.7 acre (8 ha) plot that had been burned by
wildfire. The burned plot had many snags. Birds that were present on
the burn included white-throated sparrow, chipping sparrow, dark-eyed
junco, American robin (Turdus migratorius), yellow-rumped warbler,
Nashville warbler, black-backed woodpecker, three-toed woodpecker,
winter wren (Troglodytes troglodytes), and brown creeper [9].
Postfire increases in berry-producing plants including blueberries,
raspberries (Rubus spp.), juneberries (Amelanchier spp.), and cherries
(Prunus spp.) provide abundant fruit for black bear (Ursus americanus)
for 2 to 20 years following fire [15].
Red squirrel (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus) are immediately displaced by fire
but are found in maturing fire-established black spruce stands. Spruce
grouse are dependent on black spruce habitats but are not limited to
bogs [15].
FIRE USE CONSIDERATIONS :
NO-ENTRY
FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
Prescribed fire is used after timber harvest to improve seedbed
conditions for black spruce regeneration [1].
REHABILITATION OF SITES FOLLOWING WILDFIRE :
NO-ENTRY
REFERENCES
KUCHLER TYPE: Conifer bog
REFERENCES :
1. Aksamit, Scott E.; Irving, Frank D. 1984. Prescribed burning for lowland
black spruce regeneration in northern Minnesota. Canadian Journal of
Forest Research. 14: 107-113. [7298]
2. Barrett, John W.; Ketchledge, Edwin H.; Satterlund, Donald R., eds.
1961. Forestry in the Adirondacks. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University,
State University College of Forestry. 139 p. [21405]
3. Boelter, Don H.; Verry, Elon S. 1977. Peatland and water in the northern
Lake States. Gen. Tech. Rep. NC-31. St. Paul, MN: U.S. Department of
Agrciculture, Forest Service, North Central Forest Experiment Station.
22 p. [8168]
4. Breining, Greg. 1992. Rising from the bogs. Nature Conservancy. 42(4):
25-29. [19249]
5. Illingworth, K. 1975. Lodgepole pine provenance research and breeding in
British Columbia. In: Baumgartner, David M., ed. Management of lodgepole
pine ecosystems: Symposium proceedings; 1973 October 9-11; Pullman, WA.
Vol. 1. Pullman, WA: Washington State University, Cooperative Extension
Service: 47-67. [7820]
6. Cogbill, Charles V. 1985. Dynamics of the boreal forests of the
Laurentian Highlands, Canada. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 15:
252-261. [19928]
7. Damman, Antoni W. H.; French, Thomas W. 1987. The ecology of peat bogs
of the glaciated northeastern United States: a community profile.
Biological Report 85(7.16). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the
Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Research and Development, National
Wetlands Research Center. 100 p. [9238]
8. Dansereau, Pierre; Segadas-Vianna, Fernando. 1952. Ecological study of
the peat bogs of eastern North America. Canadian Journal of Botany.
30(5): 490-520. [8869]
9. Dawson, Deanna K. 1979. Bird communities associated with succession and
management of lowland conifer forests. In: DeGraaf, Richard M.; Evans,
Keith E., compilers. Management of north central and northeastern
forests for nongame birds: Proceedings of the workshop; 1979 January
23-25; Minneapolis, MN. Gen. Tech. Rep. NC-51. St. Paul, MN: U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Forest
Experiment Station: 120-131. [18084]
10. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and
Canada. Washington, DC: Society of American Foresters. 148 p. [905]
11. Gates, Frank C. 1942. The bogs of northern lower Michigan. Ecological
Monographs. 12(3): 213-254. [10728]
12. Flinn, Marguerite A.; Wein, Ross W. 1977. Depth of underground plant
organs and theoretical survival during fire. Canadian Journal of Botany.
55: 2550-2554. [6362]
13. Frissell, Sidney S., Jr. 1973. The importance of fire as a natural
ecological factor in Itasca State Park, Minnesota. Quatenary Research.
3: 397-407. [12988]
14. Heinselman, Miron L. 1963. Forest sites, bog processes,and peatland
types in the Glacial Lake Agassiz Region, Minnesota. Ecological
Monographs. 33: 327-374. [15111]
15. Heinselman, Miron L. 1973. Restoring fire to the canoe country.
Naturalist. 24: 21-31. [15810]
16. Hofstetter, Ronald H. 1983. Chapter 7, Wetlands of the United States.
In: Gore, A.J.P, ed. Mires: Swamp, Bog, Fen and Moor. Ecosystems of the
World 4B. Amsterdam: Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company: 201-244.
[25545]
17. Johnson, Charles W. 1985. Bogs of the Northeast. Hanover, NH: University
Press of New England. 269 p. [22332]
18. Johnston, William F. 1977. Manager's handbook for black spruce in the
North Central States. Gen. Tech. Rep. NC-34. St. Paul, MN: U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Forest
Experiment Station. 18 p. [8684]
19. Johnston, William F. 1990. Larix laricina (Du Roi) K. Koch tamarack. In:
Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H., technical coordinators. Silvics
of North America. Volume 1. Conifers. Agric. Handb. 654. Washington, DC:
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 141-151. [13379]
20. Johnston, William F. 1990. Thuja occidentalis L. northern white-cedar.
In: Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H., technical coordinators.
Silvics of North America. Volume 1. Conifers. Agric. Handb. 654.
Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 580-589.
[13418]
21. Kricher, John C. 1988. A field guide to eastern forests: North America.
Peterson Field Guide Series 37. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. 368 p.
[22677]
22. Kuchler, A. W. 1964. Manual to accompany the map of potential vegetation
of the conterminous United States. Special Publication No. 36. New York:
American Geographical Society. 77 p. [1384]
23. Kurmis, Vilis; Webb, Sara L.; Merriam, Lawrence C., Jr. 1986. Plant
communities of Voyageurs National Park, Minnesota, U.S.A. Canadian
Journal of Botany. 64: 531-540. [16088]
24. Larsen, James A. 1982. Ecology of the northern lowland bogs and conifer
forests. New York: Academic Press. 307 p. [24981]
25. Niemi, Gerald J.; Pfannmuller, Lee. 1979. Avian communities: approaches
to describing their habitat associations. In: DeGraaf, Richard M.;
Evans, Keith E., compilers. Management of north central and northeastern
forests for nongame birds: Proceedings of the workshop; 1979 January
23-25; Minneapolis, MN. Gen. Tech. Rep. NC-51. St. Paul, MN: U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Forest
Experiment Station: 154-178. [18086]
26. Reschke, Carol. 1990. Ecological communities of New York State. Latham,
NY: New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, New York
Natural Heritage Program. 96 p. [21441]
27. Shafi, M. I.; Yarranton, G. A. 1973. Vegetational heterogeneity during a
secondary (postfire) succession. Canadian Journal of Botany. 51: 73-90.
[15191]
28. Smith, David W.; Suffling, R.; Stevens, Denis; Dai, Tony S. 1975. Plant
community age as a measure of sensitivity of ecosystems to disturbance.
Journal of Environmental Management. 3: 271-285. [10050]
29. Spreyer, Mark F. 1987. A floristic analysis of great gray owl habitat in
Aitkin County, Minnesota. In: Nero, Robert W.; Clark, Richard J.;
Knapton, Richard J.; Hamre, R. H., eds. Biology and conservation of
northern forest owls: Symposium proceedings; 1987 February 3-7;
Winnipeg, MB. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-142. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department
of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range
Experiment Station: 96-100. [17930]
30. Verme, Louis J. 1965. Swamp conifer deeryards in northern Michigan.
Journal of Forestry. 63: 523-529. [25040]
31. Viereck, Leslie A.; Johnston, William F. 1990. Picea mariana (Mill.)
B.S.P. black spruce. In: Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H.,
technical coordinators. Silvics of North America. Volume 1. Conifers.
Agric. Handb. 654. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Forest Service: 227-237. [13386]
Index
FEIS Home Page
Related categories for Kuchler Type: Conifer bog
|
 |
