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Wildlife, Animals, and Plants
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KUCHLER TYPE
KUCHLER TYPE: Great Lakes pine forest
KUCHLER-TYPE-NUMBER :
K095
PHYSIOGNOMY :
Low to tall needleleaf evergreen forest often with a synusia of
broadleaf deciduous trees and shrubs.
OCCURRENCE :
Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan
COMPILED BY AND DATE :
S. A. Snyder, October 1993
LAST REVISED BY AND DATE :
NO-ENTRY
AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION :
Snyder, S. A. 1993. Great Lakes pine forest. In: Remainder of Citation
Kuchler Type Index
FEIS Home
KUCHLER TYPE DESCRIPTION
PHYSIOGRAPHY :
The landscape and topography of this type varies locally, but it is
comparatively uniform. Typically the Great Lakes pine forest grows on
gently rolling hills formed by glacial deposits. The topography is also
characterized by valleys, plains, ridges, swamps, and lakes. Elevations
range from 580 feet (170 m) at lakes Huron and Michigan to 2,230 feet
(680 m)in the Misquah Hills, Minnesota [18].
CLIMATE :
Like physiography, climate varies locally but is comparatively uniform.
Annual precipitation ranges from 20 inches (500 mm) in northwest
Minnesota to 35 inches (890 mm) in lower Michigan. The average annual
precipitation for most of the region is about 30 inches (760 mm). About
56 percent of it falls between May and September. Average annual
snowfall along Lake Superior is greater than 100 inches (2,540 mm), but
less than 50 inches (1,270 mm) in central and southern Michigan. Average
annual temperatures are about 40 degrees Fahrenheit (4 deg C), but
temperatures can break 100 degrees Fahrenheit (38 deg C) and minus 50
degrees Fahrenheit (-45.5 deg C). The coldest month is usually January.
The growing season varies from 181 days in east-central Wisconsin along
Lake Michigan to 50 days in northwest part of Michigan's Upper
Peninsula. In the North the growing season is generally longer near
Lake Michigan and shorter inland [18]. Pan evaporation is 30 to 35
inches (760-890 mm). During the growing season evaporation is roughly
equal to precipitation [1].
SOILS :
There are more than 400 soil types recognized in the Great Lakes pine
forest region. Mostly they are cool, moist Spodosols, damp throughout
the year and with iron and aluminum accumulated in the organic horizon.
Soil textures and moisture retention capabilities are considered here
for each of the three pine species in this Kuchler type. Jack pine
(Pinus banksiana) occurs on dry, sandy soils and will grow on poor sites
characterized by excessively drained, deep or gravelly sands with coarse
to medium texture [18]. In Minnesota and Wisconsin site index improves
for jack pine as fine sand, silt, and clay increase in the upper layer of
soil [20]. Eastern white pine (Pinus strobus) occurs on fertile, wet,
loamy soils and competes best on well-drained sandy soils on low to
medium quality sites [27]. Red pine (Pinus resinosa) occurs on sandy,
dry soils of low fertility. It is not tolerant of alkaline conditions
[19]. All three species do well in sandy loams with good moisture
retention. Suitable soil pH is 4.8 to 7.3 for white pine and 5.0 to 6.5
for red and jack pine [18].
VEGETATION :
Eastern white pine is listed as a dominant species in the following
habitat type classification:
Field guide to forest habitat types of northern Wisconsin [10].
Eastern white pine, jack, and red pine are listed as dominants in the
following habitat type and plant community classifications:
Field guide: Habitat classification system for Upper Peninsula of
Michigan and northeast Wisconsin [4]
Plant communities of Voyageurs National Park, Minnesota, U.S.A. [12]
Wilderness ecology: Virgin plant communities of the Boundary Waters
Canoe Area [17].
Associates of jack pine include northern pin oak (Quercus
ellipsoidalis), red pine, quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides), paper
birch (Betula papyrifera), and balsam fir (Abies balsamea) [6,20].
These species are usually subdominant to jack pine, although quaking
aspen, paper birch, and red pine may be codominant [6].
Red pine associates include, but are not limited to, jack pine, northern
pin oak, quaking aspen, paper birch, balsam fir, white spruce (Picea
glauca), bigtooth aspen (Populus grandidentata), and red oak (Quercus
rubra). Red pine is subdominant with jack pine or aspens in mixed
stands and codominant with eastern white pine on dry, sandy loams. It
is sometimes minor but dominant with oaks, balsam fir, or white spruce
[6,19]. Understory species of red pine include American hazel (Corylus
americana), beaked hazel (Corylus cornuta), serviceberry (Amelanchier
spp.), raspberry (Rubus spp.), sweetfern (Comptonia peregrina), trailing
arbutus (Epigaea repens), teaberry (Gaultheria spp.) wild sarsaparilla
(Aralia nudicaulis), and strawberry (Fragaria spp.) [6].
White pine associates include, but are not limited to, balsam fir, red
pine, northern red oak, white spruce, paper birch, yellow birch (Betula
alleghaniensis), sugar maple (Acer saccharum), basswood (Tilia
americana), hemlock (Tsuga spp.), black cherry (Prunus serotina), pin
cherry (P. pensylvanica), and white oak (Quercus alba). Understory
species include teaberry (Gaultheria procumbens), wild sarsaparilla,
hay-scented fern (Dennstaedtia punctilobula), false lily-of-the-valley
(Maianthemum dilatatum), woodsorrel (Oxalis spp.), and broomsedge
(Andropogon virginicus) [6].
WILDLIFE :
Some of the wildlife species found in the Great Lakes pine forest
include black bear, wolf, coyote, fox, bobcat, moose, deer, hares,
cottontail, beaver, great-horned owl, hawks, bald eagle, and a variety
of passerine birds. The breeding population of passerine birds averages
153 pairs per 100 acres. The Kirtland's warbler is an endangered
species that inhabits the Great Lakes pine forest [1].
ECOLOGICAL RELATIONSHIPS :
White pine is more shade tolerant than either red or jack pine. Jack
pine is the least shade tolerant of the three species, and red pine is
intermediate [6,20]. Jack pine is a short-lived pioneer that usually
grows in even-age stands. White and red pines are longer lived and they
occur in pure or mixed stands [6].
Jack pine is a pioneer species on burned over or otherwise exposed
sites. Following fire, jack pine forms pure stands or the majority of
the stocking [20]. It occurs most commonly at elevations of 1,000 to
1,500 feet (300-450 m), growing on eskers, sand dunes, rock outcrops,
and dry outwash areas. On these poorer sites jack pine persists when
succession stagnates. On good sites it is succeeded by red pine
followed white pine, then by a hardwood mix of sugar maple, basswood,
and northern red oak [6]. Jack pine can also be directly followed by
speckled alder (Alnus rugosa), American hazel, beaked hazel, paper
birch, and quaking aspen [20].
Red pine occurs at elevations between 700 and 1,400 feet (200-400 m).
It often succeeds jack pine, paper birch, and aspens. On poor sites red
pine-dominated subclimax may develop if the site is undisturbed. On
good sites red pine is succeeded by hardwoods, white pine, or white
spruce and balsam fir [6].
In early succession white pine strongly competes with aspens, oaks, and
maples [27]. It can establish well on poorer sites due to reduced
competition from hardwoods. Once established on good sites white pine
outcompetes other species. It is sometimes a pioneer species on old
fields. On heavy-textured soils pure white pine stands are succeeded by
sugar maple-beech-yellow birch, white pine-hemlock, sugar
maple-basswood, or white oak plant communitites. In the lower peninsula
of Michigan pure stands are succeeded by white pine-hemlock or hemlock
mixed with northern hardwoods [6].
KUCHLER TYPE VALUE AND USE
KUCHLER TYPE: Great Lakes pine forest
FORESTRY VALUES :
During its first 20 years, jack pine is the fastest growing conifer
besides tamarack (Larix spp.). Height, basal area and merchantable
volumes have been listed for various site indices and ages [20]. A
rotation age of 40 to 50 years is recommended for pulpwood. A rotation
of 60 to 70 years is recommended for poles and sawtimber. Stocking
rates of 800 to 1,200 per acre (2,000-3,000/ha) are recommended at a
stand age of 10 years [20].
Merchantable volumes and basal areas are given for an unmanaged,
140-year-old stand of red pine on three sites (poor, medium, good).
During its first 50 years, red pine's average annual height growth rate
is 12 inches (30 cm) in Minnesota. Between the ages of 50 and 100 years
this rate drops to 6 inches (15 cm) per year. Height growth may stop
after 150 years [19].
White pine is fast growing and long lived. Height growth is slow during
the first 2 to 3 years, then peaks at an average annual rate of 3 feet
(1 m) between years 10 and 15 on good sites. Second-growth white pine
trees can be limby, and these limbs often persist on the bole for up to
25 years after the tree dies. Stocking rates for pure, even-age stands
are given [27].
RANGE VALUES :
NO-ENTRY
WILDLIFE VALUES :
Jack pine provides food and shelter for a variety of wildlife. Jack
pine stands provide habitat for the endangered Kirtland's warbler.
Warblers need homogenous stands between 5 and 20 feet (1.5-6 m) tall
(7-20 years old) in tracts larger than 80 acres (32 ha) [20]. Although
red pine stands provide some cover for wildlife, they are considered
poor habitat for upland game birds and mammals [19]. White pine seeds
are eaten by songbirds and the bark and foliage are eaten by beaver,
hares, cottontails, white-tailed deer, squirrels, and porcupine [27].
OTHER VALUES :
Jack, red, and white pines are used for posts, poles, sawtimber, and
pulpwood. Red pine is used for Christmas trees [19]. White pine is
also used for Christmas trees, as well as furniture [27]. Jack pine is
planted to stabilize watersheds [20]. Red pine is planted for erosion
control, wind or snow breaks, and scenic values. White pine is used to
stabilize strip-mined soils, and the bark is used as an astringent or
expectorant [27]. Recreation is popular in jack pine forests and in
old-growth red pine stands [19,20]. Blueberries (Vaccinium spp.) grow
in jack pine stands. Jack pine forests are also used for wildlife
watching and camping [20].
MANAGEMENT CONCERNS :
Jack, red, and white pines are susceptible to a variety of insects and
diseases. Gall rust (Endocronartium harknessii) spreads rapidly through
jack pine stands without an alternate host [20]. Red pine plantations
can be destroyed by the canker Gremmenlella abietina. Red pine is also
susceptible to a host of other diseases and insects [19]. The three
most important diseases of white pine are the white pine weevil
(Pissodes strobi), blister rust (Cronartium ribicola), and Armillaria
mellea [27].
Severe drought can kill jack pine seedlings. Flooding can kill young
jack pines [20]. Summer droughts or cold autumn temperatures may
prevent red pine seed germination. Spring flooding and spray from road
de-icing salt can kill red pine [19]. Snow and ice can break limbs of
white pine [27].
Jack, red, and white pines all suffer damage from many animal species,
including white-tailed deer, snowshoe hare, cottontails, voles, and
porcupine [19,20,27].
KUCHLER TYPE FIRE ECOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT
KUCHLER TYPE: Great Lakes pine forest
FUELS, FLAMMABILITY, AND FIRE OCCURRENCE :
Historically red and white pine stands experienced moderately frequent
to infrequent surface fires and infrequent crown fires. Short intervals
between crown fires were characteristic of jack pine forests.
Fire history studies in the Boundary Waters Canoe Area (BWCA),
Minnesota, showed an average presettlement fire interval of 36 years
between light surface fires in red and white pine stands. Severe
surface fires and crown fires, where portions of stands were killed and
new age classes developed, occurred about every 160 years [9]. In red
and white pine stands near Lake Itasca, Minnesota, the fire regime was
similar, with slightly more frequent, moderate-severity surface fires.
The average interval between surface fires was 23 years. Other fire
history studies for a region of lakes surrounding the BWCA showed
average fire intervals of 13 to 38 years for surface fires in red and
white pine stands [25]. Estimates of fire intervals in jack pine
forests are usually less than 50 years [8]. Jack pine forests that burn
more frequently than every 5 to 10 years become pine barrens [30].
The quantity and density of forest floor fuels in red pine stands in
Michigan and Minnesota are quite variable, but less so in jack pine
plantations. In one study, the average total forest floor fuel weights
in red pine plantations in Michigan and Minnesota was 32,800 pounds per
acre (37,200 kg/ha) dry weight [3]. Fuel loading in red pine
plantations is given for the Great Lake States in relation to spacing,
age, and site quality. Good sites with close spacing promote rapid fuel
buildup, but the time when fire is likely to crown is reduced [13].
Total forest floor weights in jack pine plantations in Michigan and
Minnesota averaged 23,420 pounds per acre (26,600 kg/ha) [3]. Ranges
for possible rates of slash consumption, preburn duff depths, depth of
burns, and rate of spread for prescribed fires have been given in jack
pine slash [14]. A comparison of the National Fire Danger Rating System
with the Canadian Forest Fire Weather Index is available for predicting
fuel moisture in jack pine slash in Michigan [21].
A study in red pine plantations in Michigan showed that the total weight
of forest floor fuels correlates with basal area [5]. Red pine carries
crown fires very well, and needle litter is well-aerated so that
flammability in pure stands is very high. Red pine maintains this
maximum flammability until its height exceeds 60 feet (20 m) [26]. Dead
branches within the first 7 feet (1.3 m) of the bole persist on the tree
beginning at 11 to 15 years of age on good sites with densities greater
than 1,000 trees per acre. On sites with stocking densities greater
than 1,200 trees per acre, branches begin to die and persist at 16 to 20
years of age. These dead branches contribute to ladder fuels. In red
and pine stands in the northern boreal forest, typical fuel types include
a moderately dense understory with forbs and shrubs, a continuous needle
layer, and an organic layer 2 to 4 inches (5-10 cm) deep. In order for
fires to crown, dry, windy conditions are necessary [31].
FIRE EFFECTS ON SITE :
On a wildfire in jack pine stands in Minnesota, A and B soil horizons
were studied for fire's effects on water availability, exchangeable
bases, pH, nitrogen, potassium, and carbon. These results are given for
seven burned plots and compared to unburned plots [15]. Early spring
fires in the northern parts of the Great Lakes States may only reduce a
few centimeters of the duff layer because of cool, moist soil conditions
and the presence of snow. Summer fires can remove duff and expose
mineral soil [16].
FIRE EFFECTS ON VEGETATION :
Jack pine reproduces as early as 15 to 20 years of age [8] and has
serotinous cones that allow it to regenerate following crown fires [20].
When mature, jack pine survives low-severity fires [7]. Red and white
pines survive low-severity fires at 50 to 60 years of age. Large trees
survive moderate-severity fires [7,26,28]. In the absence of fire red
and white pine stands may be converted to balsam fir and sugar maple [9].
If fire intervals are less than 50 years, jack pine can replace white
pine [28].
Removal of duff usually enhances jack pine regeneration, but moisture
stress following fire can cause seedling mortality. Seeds in jack pine
slash may be consumed by fire except when the fire moves quickly through
an area. Fast moving fires, however, are usually not hot enough to burn
the duff and do not provide the bare mineral soil jack pine requires for
establishment [14].
Jack pine regeneration may be sensitive to the season of burning. Jack
pine reproduction was less on a northern Minnesota site following a
cool, spring fire than on a similar site that burned in late July. The
spring fire burned only a few centimeters of the duff, while the July
fire burned the duff down to bare mineral soil. Tall shrubs sprouted
more on the May burned site than on the July burned site. Low shrubs
had a similar response [16]. Jack pine was the dominant tree on the
drier sites of the May burn, while hardwoods dominated the wetter sites.
During the first postfire year jack pine seedling density ranged from
0.86 to 1.58 per square foot (9.3-17.0 sq m) on the May burned site.
Densities on two July burned sites were 6.29 per square foot (67.6 sq m)
and 3.04 per square foot (32.7 sq m). For more detailed information on
vegetative effects of the Little Sioux wildfire in northern Minnesota
refer to Ohmann and Grigal [15].
Fire can kill red pine by reducing its vigor through needle kill or
damaging trees so that beetles infest the stand [24]. Surface fires
greater than 1,000 Btu per second-foot can kill a red pine stand.
Excessive crown scorch kills quickly, but cambial damage takes longer.
Seeds and cones can survive light surface fires, but are usually
consumed in crown fires that burn in spring or summer. Red pine
perpetuates well in areas where topography is broken by lakes and hills
so that these natural fire breaks create varying fire intensities in
different areas [26]. If mosses (Polytrichum spp.) establish following
fire, they create moist soil conditions and reduce competition. Under
these conditions, red pine can establish up to 6 more postfire years
[28].
FEIS species monographs for jack, red, and white pine discuss fire's
effects beyond the Great Lakes pine forest in greater detail.
FIRE EFFECTS ON RESOURCE MANAGEMENT :
NO-ENTRY
FIRE USE CONSIDERATIONS :
Jack pine stands regenerate well in frequently burned areas, but red and
white pine must have 150 to 350 years between crown fires in order for
stands to perpetuate [28]. Young jack pines are susceptible to early
spring fires [20]. Fire can be used to prepare a bare mineral seedbed
for red pine and to kill competing vegetation [26]. However, fire in
red pine stands can kill trees up to 69 feet (21 m) high [19].
FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
Fire behavior in mature and immature jack pine stands is detailed for
experimental fires in the Great Lakes region of Ontario [22,23].
Procedures for prescribed burning of jack pine stands for regeneration
have been published [2].
Prescribed fires are used to rid jack pine stands of disease and
competition. The number of seed trees per hectare can vary dramatically
on sites burned for natural regeneration. Methods for direct seeding
and planting of jack pine following prescribed fire have been discussed
[14].
Prescribed fires are used in seedcone-production stands of red pine to
control red pine cone beetle (Conophthorus resinosae). Backfires and
strip-headfires are used in seedcone plantations in Minnesota,
Wisconsin, and Michigan. Small plots (0.2 ha) burned in spring can have
as high as 100 percent insect mortality. Mortality in fall-burned plots
can reach 95 percent. Larger burned plots (0.7-21 ha) also show
significant reductions of insects. However, two other species of cone
destroyers may show increases following prescribed fires set for
controlling red pine cone beetle. Burning during heavy cone production
years would maximize the benefits of fire [29].
REHABILITATION OF SITES FOLLOWING WILDFIRE :
NO-ENTRY
REFERENCES
KUCHLER TYPE: Great Lakes pine forest
REFERENCES :
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Index
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